The origins and earliest urban development of Leiden have long preoccupied Leiden historians. In the early twentieth century, researchers believed that the Roman castellum Matilo was located underneath the motte-and-bailey castle of the Burcht, which led to deep excavations but no conclusive evidence of this Roman fortification. It took archaeologists several years to realise that Leiden was not built by Romans, since Matilo was situated southeast of the city and the keep was of medieval origin.1 Hugo van Oerle was the first to attempt to write a comprehensive academic history of the urban development of Leiden.2 For over 25 years, Van Oerle’s two volumes were the source of debate and research on the subject. A new survey of the history of Leiden was published in 2002: the first volume of a series of four edited by Jan Marsilje, which include an overview of Leiden’s earliest urban development written by Ed van der Vlist. More than twenty years after its publication, this overview remains surprisingly relevant.3 This is due to the fact that since its publication, little new data on Leiden’s origins have come to light. Every attempt to re-evaluate this intriguing phase of the city’s history has consisted merely of reinterpreting the available historical sources.4
In recent years, however, archaeological and building-archaeological discoveries in various parts of the city have re-invigorated the dialogue about the period in which the city was founded. These new interdisciplinary insights by no means diminish the significance of earlier publications, but they do enable us to better interpret the origins and spatial development of Leiden and compare them with the origins and growth of other cities in the Netherlands. Although no synthesis has been written on the emergence of the urban form and the evolution of the urban landscape in the Low Countries in recent
The chapter below presents the most up to date knowledge on the origins and development of Leiden in a chronological manner. Data from older publications and from more recent studies are brought together as we deal successively with the following topics: landscape, reclamations, origins of the town and urban expansions. Finally, the focus shifts from Leiden’s urban structure to the development of construction in the city, covering aspects such as building density and the provenance of building materials and the transition from wood to brick as the most common building material. We conclude by situating the urban development of Leiden in a broader context: how does Leiden fit into the picture of urbanisation elsewhere in the Netherlands? And, at the level of the city of Leiden itself, how does the growth of medieval Leiden differ from the growth of later periods? This allows us to identify avenues for future research on the early urban development of Leiden.
1 A Dynamic River Landscape
Leiden emerged in the central Middle Ages at the intersection of several waterways, the Old Rhine, Mare and Vliet. Even in Roman times, the region’s main river, the Old Rhine, was an artery for trade along which dwellings and military structures were built. However, Leiden’s Roman past has no link (and continuity) with the medieval city: it arose at a different site, northwest from the Roman castellum Matilo. The landscape is believed to have inspired the
The western coastal area of the Netherlands changed significantly during the Holocene. Because of rising sea levels, several lines of beach ridges formed between Leiden and Katwijk from c. 5000 years ago. At about the same time (c. 3400 BCE), the Old Rhine came into being.9 The wide estuary at its mouth was the only place where, at high tide, the sea flowed into the hinterland. The land behind the coastal beach ridges and beyond the relatively high embankments of the Rhine was wet and consisted of vast areas of peat land intermingled with thick layers of clay deposited by the flooding Rhine and the sea. Large gullies and creeks also formed in the peatlands during flooding. The Rhine did not always flow into the same place, nor was it always as winding as it is today. In Roman times, as opposed to during the Middle Ages, the Rhine flowed along a fairly straight course, and was probably about 300 metres wide and more than ten metres deep. It thus carried a large volume of water.10
Near the end of the Roman era, a new river (the Waal) formed upstream into which some of the Rhine’s water was discharged. This decrease in flow weakened the Rhine’s current, causing the once-straight river to begin meandering. In the early Middle Ages, the Rhine’s river channel shifted continuously within a wide band, with the bends becoming larger and larger. Riverbank deposits built up, creating land suitable for settlement. However, the meandering process also caused the banks of the outer bends to erode, and archaeological remains from the earliest occupation phases from prehistory onward have consequently disappeared completely.11 The Rhine kept shifting until 1122, when it was dammed at Wijk bij Duurstede. This caused the estuary to silt up even further. When the sea flooded far inland during the St Thomas Flood in 1165, depositing thick layers of clay, the mouth of the Rhine became permanently
Living in a coastal area meant that water was an ever-present reality. As a result, the preference was for settlements to be built on high and dry ground. In many places, the banks of the Rhine were suitable for habitation either temporarily or long term, as evidenced by the location of Roman castella and settlements in nearby Valkenburg and Matilo. The same is true for the early medieval settlement Nieuw Rhijngeest in Oegstgeest; here people settled on the high ground next to the Rhine and shifted their settlements with the moving river.
Dozens of archaeological surveys of inner-city Leiden show the pre-urban landscape in relief (Figure 2.1).13 The south side of the Rhine was marked by a wide swath of natural sandy heights, where, in approximately 1200, the Count of Holland established his court and the Pieterskerk was built. But not all places along the Rhine were as suitable for habitation, such as the half-filled dry Rhine meanders or the areas with subsoil that consisted of layers of clay and peat that had been deposited under wet conditions. In the Papengracht and Pieterskerkgracht, for example, remnant gully deposits have been found. This remnant gully was cut off from the main channel of the Rhine at an unknown time. It silted up and was filled in the period 1025–1150. Subsequently, the area of the gully was raised, but building commenced only in the thirteenth century.14 We must therefore take into account the fact that the area between the count’s court and the Rhine was not a uniformly dry bank but required human engineering to make it habitable. The northern bank of the Rhine lay directly adjacent to a lower flood basin with subsoil consisting of clay and peat which was less suitable for habitation. Along the Mare, the subsoil is relatively higher, and older settlements may have formed here. Finally, the Waardeiland, a tract of
Pre-urban landscape elevation of what is now Leiden’s inner city (colour gradient: red [high], orange, yellow, green, blue [low]). The black line indicates the largest medieval extension of Leiden. The white ovals indicate insufficient data for a reliable reconstruction of the pre-urban elevation
SOURCE: AUTHORS
2 Leiden in the Ninth to Eleventh Centuries
It is difficult to pinpoint when exactly Leiden came into existence merely on the basis of historical sources. An early source (c. 850), the property list of St Martin’s Church in Utrecht, mentions three settlements named Leithon. The location of these settlements has long been debated and the case is still unresolved; the current view is that they existed on the north bank of the Rhine in the vicinity of Leiden/Leiderdorp, and possibly also on the
In the same period, the Burcht was built: a castle on the western tip of the Waardeiland where the two branches of the Rhine and one of the Mare meet. The castle in its present form is a motte castle, that is, a castle built on a man-made mound of earth. The age of the castle has also been long debated. After the destruction of the earthwork castle at Rijnsburg in the mid-eleventh century, the count of what would soon come to be called Holland began minting coins at Leitheriburch. This shift is often considered to mark the year the Burcht was built.18 However, the archaeological discovery of ninth or tenth-century wooded remains at the deepest levels of the castle mound is an indication that the Burcht was probably built before 1050.19 In its oldest form, the castle may have been a mound where local residents sought refuge from rising flood waters. It has also been suggested that it could have been a ring-wall castle (a fortification consisting of a circular earthen wall), but this is disputed.20 However, little is known about this earliest period and the following centuries.21
It is unlikely that the count built his castle in an empty and uninhabited landscape. The settlement on the north bank of the Rhine bears witness to this, and we can also infer from the botting list (a tax record from the eleventh century) that by the end of that century a settlement large enough for taxes to be levied existed there.22 Whether and how the south bank of the Rhine was inhabited in the eleventh century, however, remains unclear. The oldest settlement traces here date from the twelfth century.
3
Throughout the Middle Ages, the count resided at various places in the county of Holland. The count’s court (or curtis) in Leiden consisted of a residence, the Gravensteen, which later functioned as a prison, and the count’s chapel, which was later designated as a parish church for the residents in the area. It has traditionally been assumed that the Pieterskerk was erected in the county area as early as 1121, but Peter Bitter and Piet de Baar established in 1992 that this dating is questionable.23 In historical sources, the Pieterskerk does not otherwise appear in the twelfth century. An early dating of the Pieterskerk is in doubt for another reason. The presence of other buildings in the burial area before the mid-twelfth century has not been archaeologically proven.24 The residential House Lokhorst, excavated in 1966, was of brick rather than tuff, as might be expected for a twelfth-century dwelling.25 Edwin Orsel dates the oldest phase of the count’s castle in which brick was used to be very early, namely before 1200. Moreover, he indicates that the Gravensteen may have originally been built as a residential tower and only later took on the function of a prison.26 So the count may have moved into the Gravensteen shortly before 1200. Evidence for other twelfth-century stone or brick buildings in Leiden, apart from the Burcht, is as yet lacking. The court in Leiden was important to the counts of Holland, as evidenced by the exclusive right this court had to the spitwood (firewood and wooden stakes). This wood was presumably delivered to the Leiden county court from across Rhineland as early as the twelfth century.27
Habitation was initially limited to the Breestraat and nearby areas. Merchants and artisans remained living between the Rhine and Langebrug. The Langebrug, or Vollersgracht, was once a moat that functioned as the boundary of the city: the reference poirtgrafte van Leyden in a charter from 1341 records this.28 This oldest urban area must once have belonged to the count’s curtis, but the date and the method of giving out land for urban development cannot be determined from historical sources. Archaeological research offers a clue: it shows that the oldest settlement on the Breestraat was a small, elongated mound about 125 metres in diameter and only 90 cm
4 Reclamation and Water Control at the End of the Twelfth Century
Reclamations in the hinterland on both sides of the Rhine had been going on for quite some time by the beginning of the twelfth century and contributed greatly to the hydrological problems that occurred in that century. The Rhine’s estuary had gradually dried up and, at the same time, the reclamations in the hinterland caused water levels to rise. As this water was unable to drain, major flooding ensued during the twelfth century. This, in turn, led to efforts to make the banks of the Rhine habitable or to ensure that they remained so. Along with the construction and raising of the village on the south bank of the Rhine, the area between the embankment and the water was raised and the Rhine was narrowed by installing revetments and depositing soil. The reclaimed land was immediately put to use, after which individual plots were further raised and built out towards the Rhine.33 This eventually pushed the south bank of the Rhine some 25 metres to the north. Because the houses on the Breestraat thus lost access to the water, the waterstegen – characteristic of Leiden – were created. These were narrow alleys that ran from the backs of the Breestraat
5 Urban Development in the Thirteenth Century
Leiden’s oldest city charter is dated around 1200.35 By then, the city was of considerable size, and its growth continued in the following years. In the period 1200–1225 (or 1250), the Breestraat was further raised and resurfaced with wood. Further reclamations caused the plots that ran through to the Rhine to be enlarged plot by plot towards the water.36 After 1250, densification increased rapidly, and the city grew. At the same time, there were planned and collective land reclamations of the Rhine. The dyke was raised again and around 1250 the first brick houses were constructed along the Breestraat alongside wooden houses.37
The elongated village on either side of the Breestraat included four neighbourhoods, which were called bonnen in Leiden. The typically Leiden name reveals the strong connection the earliest residents had with the Rijndijk: a bon was the part of the dyke for which the residents were responsible. The oldest bonnen bordered each other in the heart of the community at the ‘blue stone’ in the Breestraat. They took their names from the main buildings that stood there: cloth hall (Wanthuis), wool hall (Wolhuis), hospital (Gasthuis) and meat hall (Vleeshuis).38
The count retained ownership of real estate throughout the city. For example, he owned a contiguous area south of the Breestraat until well into the fourteenth century. The area south of the Pieterskerk was ecclesiastical land
Leiden around 1300. 1 Area of the count of Holland, 102 ha; 2 Area of the Teutonic Order, 32 ha; 3 The Burcht, 19 ha; 4 Civil area, 183 ha. Later known as the bonnen: 4a) Vleeshuis, 4b) Gasthuis, 4c) Wolhuis, 4d) Wanthuis, 4e) Burgstreng, 4f) Kerkvierendeel
SOURCE: AUTHORS
In addition to the houses of citizens, this fledgling town was also home to a variety of other structures. The oldest preserved structure is the aforementioned castle hill, on which the present ring wall of tuff and brick was built in the thirteenth century.39 The oldest brick building is the earlier mentioned Gravensteen, a square tower dating from the late twelfth century. It is one of
In the urban area on either side of the central Breestraat, many public buildings were built alongside private dwellings. Of the buildings after which the four oldest bonnen are named, the Gasthuis is the best known. This hospital was founded in or before 1276, and large parts of the ward of the hospice are still preserved in the Walloon Church on the Breestraat.43 When the Vleeshuis and Wolhuis were founded and where they stood is unknown. The Wanthuis, whose date of origin is also unknown, stood behind the town hall, which is first mentioned in 1350.44 Recently, the ‘clock house’, which stood at the corner of the Breestraat and the Maarsmansteeg, was also the subject of a building archaeological survey.45 At the beginning of the fourteenth century, Count William III gave Leiden’s citizenry permission to hang a bell on this thirteenth-century house.46 These early buildings were constructed of durable brick, so they are, in part, preserved, but they are also evidence that brick was used as construction material in Leiden already in the thirteenth century.
6 Settlement on Waardeiland and the City’s First Expansion in 1294
While the Burcht was probably the oldest (and for a long time the only) building on the Waardeiland, historical sources mention inhabitants on the island only in 1292. In that year a tug-of-war between the Pieterskerk and the
The boundaries of the city of Leiden, c. 1250
SOURCE: T. LAMMERS, ECHO INFORMATION DESIGN
The boundaries of the city of Leiden, c. 1300
SOURCE: T. LAMMERS, ECHO INFORMATION DESIGN
The boundaries of the city of Leiden, c. 1350
SOURCE: T. LAMMERS, ECHO INFORMATION DESIGN
The boundaries of the city of Leiden, c. 1386
SOURCE: T. LAMMERS, ECHO INFORMATION DESIGN
Clearly, there was activity in the final decade of the thirteenth century, indicating that the growth of the city on the south bank of the Rhine included the Waardeiland. In 1294 or 1295, Count Floris V ceded ownership of land ‘right
The moat in the Nieuwstraat appears to be one of the oldest structures on the Waardeiland. The oldest deposits outside the castle site were recently found further down the Nieuwstraat and date from the mid-thirteenth century.49 Historical sources from the same period show that the area between Burchtgracht and Hooigracht was built up in short order.50 We also know from archaeological research that the northern branch of the Rhine was narrowed during the same period. Reclamations and the construction of new quays excavated on the Kaasmarkt and in the Koppenhinksteeg mean that the south bank shifted about fifteen metres to the north.51
7 Urban Expansion in Marendorp, Waardeiland and Hogewoerd, 1346/1355
The fourteenth century was a time of considerable growth for Leiden. On 1 September 1346 the city was granted permission by Countess Margaret, wife of Emperor Louis of Bavaria and successor of her brother Count William IV, to enlarge the city limits by two hundred roeden al ommegaende, that is, more
As part of this expansion, the settlement of Marendorp was incorporated into the city limits. It was located along today’s Haarlemmerstraat, north of the Rhine, on both sides of the Mare. The area west of the Mare belonged to the lordship of Oegstgeest, and the area east of the Mare to Leiderdorp. The two settlements (Leiden and Marendorp) were connected by a bridge, which was built of stone in the early fourteenth century. The settlement of the banks of the Mare, as discussed above, began in the ninth to eleventh centuries. The Haarlemmerstraat was probably originally a dyke running along the Rhine. Until recently, it was assumed that the original dyke lay below the southern part of the current Haarlemmerstraat.55 However, recent research has found that the dyke was not uncovered, which calls into question the earlier assumption.56 It is unclear whether the north bank of the Rhine remained permanently inhabited after the eleventh century. Excavations on both sides of Haarlemmerstraat have uncovered the remains of settlements and revealed finds from the mid-thirteenth century but nothing from the preceding centuries.57
Even before being incorporated into the city of Leiden, Marendorp had urban features. A chapel existed in the settlement in 1300, and many people lived and worked in Marendorp, including artisans. At that time, residents of Leiden farmed land on the north side of the Rhine and bred cattle there. A drawbridge at Vrouwensteeg enabled the townspeople to travel back and forth with wagons in spring and autumn, at harvest time.58 This link to Leiden boosted construction in Marendorp. Land grants were given shortly after 1355, and the number of residents increased rapidly. In 1364, the Chapel of Our Lady
The mid-fourteenth century urban expansion also included the section of the Waardeiland between Hooigracht and Vestestraat/Herengracht. In this area, archaeological traces of habitation from the third quarter of the fourteenth century have been found.60 Archival sources mention construction in this urban district around 1360. In this same expansion, Hogewoerd was also incorporated into the city, contrary to earlier assumptions.61 Some suburban construction also took place, but Hogewoerd cannot be called a suburb at this point. It is certain that around 1350 the Hogewoerd had two gates: the Hogewoerd gate via the Hoge Rijndijk and the St Jorispoort. Archaeological remains of the later gate were found in 1972 near the St Jorissteeg.62
8 The City Expansion of 1386
The city area was already relatively large by the mid-fourteenth century, but space was also at a premium, as evidenced by the growth of a suburb beyond the North Gate near the Rapenburg.63 In 1359, several houses stood on land between the Noordeinde and the present-day Groenhazengracht, which in 1329 was bordered on the city side ‘mit der poerte burchwal’. It was not until 1386 that Leiden received permission from Duke Albrecht of Bavaria to formally expand the city. The Witte Singel and part of the Zoeterwoudse Singel replaced the Rapenburg, the Steenschuur and the Levendaal as the outer city canal.
We can follow the city growth in more detail on the south side of the city. According to Jan Orlers, only the ‘playgrounds and gardens of the good guys’ (St George’s training grounds for the militia) and the tenter fields where woollen cloths were stretched to dry on racks, had previously been located there.64 Little changed there until around 1415. St George’s training grounds were owned by the city, but the area between the Vliet and the later
In retrospect, the late start of construction may have been fortunate, because in 1420 the fortifications had not yet been completed when the city was besieged by John of Bavaria in the power struggle for the county, which has gone down in history as the Hook and Cod wars. The situation forced the residents of Leiden to demolish the entire suburb at Noordeinde-Rapenburg.67 In the years following the siege, the suburb was rebuilt bit by bit and construction began anew in the area south of the Rapenburg.
In the first half of the fifteenth century, wealthy townspeople owned vast plots of land in the new town area.68 This meant that there was plenty of room to build. Four convents were established here shortly before the mid-fifteenth century, one being that of the Jacobin Sisters, or White Nuns. It is from their convent that the Nonnenbrug and Nonnensteeg take their names. New moats, walls, gates and wall towers had to be built as defences for the urban expansions. This meant that the South Gate near the Hogewoerd, now within the city, was downgraded to an inner gate in 1346, and the two older city gates, the North Gate and St Jorispoort, came to lie within the city walls with the expansion of 1386 and fell into disuse. After this final medieval expansion, the city’s fortifications were impressive, with a moat surrounding the city, a city wall with five city gates and several wall towers.69
9
Securely within its defences, the city was gradually built up. Knowledge about construction in Leiden’s past has expanded in recent decades through the systematic application of building archaeological research.70 In recent years, for example, the physical remains – sometimes entire buildings – of nearly 150 structures from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries have been discovered. By combining this with data from archives, archaeological evidence and surviving buildings, a picture emerges of the ‘petrification’ of Leiden, the transformation of a settlement consisting of wooden buildings into an urban residential environment of stone structures.71
Initially, Leiden was characterised by wide, deep plots with detached buildings, sometimes separated by plot ditches.72 As the population increased, the
Building remains from before 1425 found during building archaeological research
SOURCE: MAP BY P.J. DE VOS, ERFGOED LEIDEN EN OMSTREKEN
Densification of Leiden: a. pre-urban period, b. thirteenth century and c. period around 1425
SOURCE: DRAWINGS BY CARL VAN HEES, 2007
An excavation at the Aalmarkt in 2007 provided important insights into the earliest construction in Leiden. In the late thirteenth century, buildings were supported by buried piles, but around 1300 this transitioned to brick foundations in the ground, even while pile foundations were still being used. From the decreasing percentages of loam in the different deposit layers, it can be deduced that until the end of the thirteenth century the buildings had mainly loam-lined, half-timbered walls and thatched roofs, and that thereafter wooden facades became more common.74 The residents of Leiden initially used local building materials, for example loam, wood and reeds, but by the end of the thirteenth century they began using other building materials. Remains of roof and floor tiles are indications of the ‘petrification’ of floors and roofs in the fourteenth century. It is these new types of building materials that left their mark on building construction in medieval Leiden.
Building history research shows that thirteenth-century houses had brick side walls. Archival sources from the beginning of the fourteenth century also record these brick houses.75 Almost no traces of medieval wooden or timber-frame buildings have been found from the same period. This can be explained by regulations passed by the city council as early as 1292 to lessen the danger of fire in the densely built-up city of wooden and half-timbered houses with thatched roofs.76 By 1406 a ‘hard’ slate or tile roof was required for a house with walls over 16 feet (about 5 m).77 In 1450 thatched roofs were banned on new and renovated buildings.78 Leiden was no exception in this; many other cities implemented similar regulations focused on fire safety.79 Building regulations, along with the ready availability of brick and ceramic roofing materials that were produced in the immediate vicinity of Leiden, accelerated the
Durable, fireproof, kiln-baked building materials such as bricks and roof tiles were being made in Holland by around 1200.82 Brick was locally manufactured and a good alternative to expensive natural stone that had to be imported. Leiden’s location was favourable in this regard because directly outside the city, good quality, suitable clay from the Rhine was available as raw material for bricks, as was peat as kiln fuel. Moreover, Leiden’s growing population meant that brickmakers could count on sufficient available labour.83 Brickworks were soon established that produced bricks, roof tiles and tiles on an industrial scale used locally in Leiden, but they were also exported along the river transport route. Leiden brick came to be well-known far beyond Leiden. Using historical building research, including dendrochronological research and archaeological and historical sources, it has been possible to establish a chronology of brick sizes used in Leiden.84
In the process of petrification in the thirteenth century, older timber and stone construction techniques were brought together in the timber-framed stone building. The advantage of this building type was that it could be fireproofed with much thinner walls of one – or one-and-a-half stone thickness, with the load-bearing timber frame providing a structurally stable building.85 Many buildings also had ‘hard’ roofs. The added advantage of these roofs was that guttering was possible, which made building houses with adjoining walls possible, increasing the built-up area of the city. Around 1400, those who could afford it lived in wood-framed stone houses, whose hard, fireproof roofs were encouraged by the city government. The street pattern of these houses has been preserved to this day, but these old buildings are not visible in the streetscape because they are hidden behind modern facades in today’s inner city.
The source of building materials shifted over the centuries. The accounts of St Catherine’s hospital show that it used locally available supplies until 1430. In the mid-fifteenth century, this changed and building materials came from elsewhere via (often long-distance) trade. Bricks, however, were still obtained from nearby brickworks along the Rhine. Construction wood was brought in from Dordrecht and finer oak from Amsterdam. Lime, roofing slates and slate
A wooden or half-timbered house (a.) and a wood-framed stone house (b.)
SOURCE: E.D. ORSEL, 2020, ERFGOED LEIDEN EN OMSTREKEN
10 Urban Development in a Broader Perspective
In this chapter we readdressed the origins and spatial development of Leiden. By combining existing insights and new data from recent archaeological and building archaeological research, we were able to reconstruct in more detail how Leiden emerged as an urban settlement and further developed in relation to its location within a river landscape, the presence of a count’s castle and that of the count’s court. The urban landscape continued to evolve under the influence of the requirements of the expanding urban population.
Leiden emerged from and expanded across a dynamic river landscape where the river and sea played a major role. As such, Leiden’s urbanisation parallels that of other urban developments in the Dutch coastal region.88 Core elements of this shared urbanisation include city formation in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, large land reclamations, the power base of the counts of Holland and the accessibility of water trade routes. Leiden, like Haarlem, Rotterdam, Alkmaar and Dordrecht, emerged in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries from an older nucleus and played an economic role throughout the Middle Ages. Their location on important water trade routes and, in the case of Leiden, its flourishing cloth production, contributed to this.89 What further links these towns was the active role of their inhabitants and a ruler in the person of the Count of Holland who stimulated town development. Leiden developed from an agricultural settlement into an urban one through a wave of urbanisation in the Western Netherlands in the twelfth and especially the thirteenth centuries.90 It is as yet unclear how local power relations had an effect on Leiden’s emergence and urbanisation process in relation to these
Medieval urban development in Leiden differed in several ways from the urban expansion that took place in the seventeenth century. In the Middle Ages, urban expansion was politically motivated. Cities received permission to expand from the overlord (count or duke) and rapidly built city defences enclosing their newly acquired territory. Land within the city walls was initially used mainly for the establishment of large monasteries, and it took a long time for the new areas of the city to be developed; green and empty spaces existed throughout this period. Building activities were not conducted according to a spatial plan but followed existing boundaries and waterways. Population growth during this period was modest but steady. It remains difficult to ascertain the exact numbers of inhabitants, despite the fact that the demographic development of cities has been studied by several scholars. During the late Middle Ages, Leiden changed from an agriculturally oriented settlement to a supra-regional centre of trade and (cloth) production, drawing people in from the countryside. As a result, the population increased from (an estimated) 1250 inhabitants in 1250 to 12,000–14,250 by the end of the fifteenth century.92
In contrast, seventeenth-century expansion was caused mainly by demographic factors: after the Siege of Leiden in 1574, numerous religious refugees from the Southern Netherlands sought refuge in Leiden. This, together with a boom in the cloth industry, caused the population to grow to about 62,000 post-1574; the city was bursting at the seams and new houses were urgently needed. Newly developed areas were built up within a few years according to a predetermined street, canal and allotment pattern. Social segregation was part of the urban design in its seventeenth-century expansion, unlike the medieval parts of the city where this type of segregation came about naturally. The design of the new quarters provided for expensive housing along the canals. In the side streets, small plots were designated for working-class inhabitants. Poor and rich thus lived side by side, and the location of the front
Another difference between the medieval city and that of later periods was where industrial activities were located in the city. Historical sources indicate that in the Middle Ages craftsmen engaged in the various stages of cloth production congregated in the immediate vicinity of the tenter grounds on the southeast side of Leiden. The location of the tenter fields determined where the workers settled; the stench and pollution caused by these crafts were taken for granted. It was not until the end of the sixteenth century that measures were taken to reduce the inconvenience the polluting trades caused to the city; and the fullers, who were by far the greatest polluters in cloth production, were moved to the northern side of the city.94
Despite the sometimes detailed information on the spatial development of Leiden, there are aspects of the earliest phases of the city that are not yet fully understood. One concerns a more detailed understanding of the relationship between the count’s court and the origin and growth of the city. What exactly was the role of the Count of Holland in the earliest formation of Leiden and the reclamation that took place? The age and function of the motte Burcht also remains a subject of debate. What was the relationship of this castle to the settlement and the court of the count that arose on the south side of the Rhine? The landscape and the shifting location of natural waterways are known only in outline. Adding further detail to this picture would contribute to a better understanding of the origins, location, extent and layout of the earliest settlements in Leiden. Shifting our attention to the thirteenth century and later, much remains to be learned about the reasons for the many urban expansions and densification of Leiden’s built environment, possibly in relation to its users, the diverse and changing urban population. Future building archaeological and archaeological research should offer answers to these questions.
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Kuile, E.H. ter. ‘Baksteenformaten in Zuid-Holland tot het midden van de 16de eeuw’. Oudheidkundig Jaarboek 6 (1937): 96–99.
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Meier, Yolande, and Michel van Dam. Archeologische opgraving Haarlemmerstraat 101–111/Stille Rijn 8–9. Leiden: Gemeente Leiden, 2023.
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Mieris, Frans van. Groot charterboek der graaven van Holland, van Zeeland, en heeren van Vriesland. Vol. 2. Leiden: Pieter van der Eyk, 1754.
Mieris, Frans van, ed. Handvesten, privilegien, octroyen, rechten, en vryheden: midsgaders ordonnantien, resolutien, plakkaaten, verbintenissen, costumen, instructien en handelingen der stad Leyden. Leiden: Abraham Kallewier, 1759.
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Orsel, Edwin. De ordinaire kap: een bouwhistorische studie naar kapconstructies op Leidse huizen tussen 1300 en 1800. Hilversum: Verloren, 2020.
Orsel, Edwin. ‘Een middeleeuwse gevel van het Catharinagasthuis’. Leids Jaarboekje 103 (2011): 215–16.
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Verhulst, Adriaan E. The Rise of Cities in North-West Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Vlist, Ed van der. De Burcht van Leiden. Leiden: Primavera Pers, 2001.
Vlist, Ed van der. ‘De stedelijke ruimte en haar bewoners’. In Leiden: de geschiedenis van een Hollandse stad. Vol. 1: Leiden tot 1574, edited by J.W. Marsilje, 15–57, 218–25. Leiden: Stichting Geschiedschrijving Leiden, 2002.
Vlist, Ed van der. ‘Mist over de stad: Leiden rond 1200’. Leids Jaarboekje 100 (2008): 1–32.
Vlist, Ed van der. ‘“Rapenburg Revisited”: langs de grenzen van een Leidse gracht in de Late Middeleeuwen’’. Leids Jaarboekje 89 (1997): 32–44.
Vries, Dirk J. de. Bouwen in de late middeleeuwen: stedelijke architectuur in het voormalige Over- en Nedersticht. Utrecht: Matrijs, 1994.
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Holwerda, ‘Roomburg’.
Van Oerle, Leiden.
Marsilje, Leiden; Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’.
Van der Vlist, ‘Mist over de stad’; Lugt, Het ontstaan van Leiden; De Boer and Brandenburgh, ‘De vroegste geschiedenis’.
Verhulst, The Rise of Cities; Vannieuwenhuyze and Rutte, ‘Medieval Urban Form’; Taverne, In ’t land van belofte.
De Vries, Bouwen in de late middeleeuwen; Deneweth, ‘Building Regulations’; Deneweth, ‘Renovating Early Modern Leiden’; Van Tussenbroek, ‘The Great Rebuilding’; Abrahamse and Deneweth, Transforming Space.
See, in general, Lilley, City and Cosmos.
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 15.
Cohen and Stouthamer, ‘Digitaal Basisbestand’.
Wilbers, ‘De meanderende Oude Rijn’.
Wilbers.
Van Oerle, Leiden; Dijkstra and Brandenburgh, Leiden-Aalmarktschool, 27.
An important source of information for this is the 2014 underground waste container project in which drilling surveys were conducted throughout the inner city. Various drilling surveys and excavations in the oldest parts of Leiden have also been used. See: Jordanov and Wink, Oud vuil.
Brandenburgh, Het archeologisch onderzoek, 15.
Dijkstra, ‘Het raadsel’.
For sources and dating, see Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 19.
Meier and Van Dam, Archeologische opgraving Haarlemmerstraat, 22–26.
Lugt, ‘Het oudste Leiden’.
De Boer and Brandenburgh, ‘De vroegste geschiedenis’, 11–12.
Orsel, ‘De Burcht’; Van der Ende, ‘De Burcht’; Lugt, Het ontstaan van Leiden, 52.
Van der Vlist, De Burcht; cf. Lugt, Het ontstaan van Leiden.
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 21.
Bitter and De Baar, ‘Enkele gedachten’, 97. This doubt also resonates with Dröge and Veerman, ‘Inleiding’, 13, but Van der Vlist, ‘Mist over de stad’, 13, considers it ‘by no means impossible’.
Brandenburgh and Orsel, ‘Leiden’, 99.
Van Oerle, Leiden, 1:67.
Orsel, ‘Licht in de duistere Middeleeuwen’, 13–14; Brandenburgh and Orsel, ‘Leiden’, 98.
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 28.
Van der Vlist, 26, 70.
Pruissers and Vos, ‘Een Hollandse stad’, 76.
Hallewas, ‘Een gat in de Breestraat’; Horssen and Ostkamp, ‘Keramiek’.
Brandenburgh, Het archeologisch onderzoek, 101–4.
Dijkstra and Brandenburgh, Leiden-Aalmarktschool, 34–35.
Dijkstra and Brandenburgh, 324–25.
The word ‘watersteeg’ means water alley. They were called so because they gave access to water, not because they were waterways themselves.
Van Maanen, ‘Het Leidse stadsrecht’, 48, argues that William I granted the city the right, and did so between 1213 and 1217, while Lugt, ‘Het oudste Leiden’, 45, dates the charter later. De Boer and Brandenburgh, ‘De vroegste geschiedenis’, 15, consider it more likely that Dirk VII (1190–1203) granted the first city rights.
Hallewas, ‘Een gat in de Breestraat’, 37–38; Horssen and Ostkamp, ‘Keramiek’, 72–73; Dijkstra and Brandenburgh, Leiden-Aalmarktschool, 37–38; Brandenburgh and Orsel, ‘Leiden’; Brandenburgh, Het archeologisch onderzoek, 105–6.
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 51–55.
The old city along the Breestraat was expanded to include the bonnen Over’t Hof (count’s area) and Zevenhuizen (ecclesiastical area). At the end of the thirteenth century, the wards on the Waardeiland (Burgstreng and Kerkvierendeel) were added, and in the mid-fourteenth century were added those on the north bank of the Rhine (Marendorp and Overmare) and further onto the Waardeiland (Gansoord and Sint Nicolaasgracht).
Orsel, ‘De Burcht’.
Orsel, ‘Oude muurdelen’.
Lunsingh Scheurleer, Fock, and Van Dissel, Het Rapenburg, 2:163–64; Van Oerle, Leiden, 1:76; Brandenburgh, Het archeologisch onderzoek, 41–47.
Koorn, Begijnhoven in Holland en Zeeland, 171–79; Sicking, ‘Middeleeuwse bebouwing’, 190; Van Maanen, ‘De “Witte poort aan de Vliet”’, 44.
Orsel, ‘Een middeleeuwse gevel’; Orsel, ‘Kaarnis bevestigt oorsprong Waalse kerk’.
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 52.
Orsel et al., ‘Onverwachte ontdekkingen’.
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 52.
Erfgoed Leiden en Omstreken, Leiden (hereafter ELO), NL-LdnRAL-0501, no. 81, f. 3r, Privilegeboek 50 (between 16 April 1294 and 1 April 1295); Kruisheer, Oorkondenboek, vol. IV, no. 2984; Kort, ‘Repetorium’, no. 157.
ELO, NL-LdnRAL-0501, no. 374 (20 December 1314, in vidimus 16 June 1328).
Brandenburgh, Het archeologisch onderzoek, 71.
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 36–38.
Brandenburgh, Het archeologisch onderzoek, 83.
ELO, NL-LdnRAL-0501, no. 81, f. 3r, Privilegeboek A, f. 13r-13v (1 September 1346); Van Mieris, Groot charterboek, 2:741; Van Oerle, Leiden, 1:157 (both dated 31 August 1347).
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 39; De Boer, ‘De Waard en zijn gasten’, 33.
Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 39–40.
Kistemaker, ‘Archeologisch onderzoek’; Bitter, ‘Archeologisch bodemonderzoek’, 89.
Meier and Van Dam, Archeologische opgraving Haarlemmerstraat, 250.
Meier and Van Dam, Archeologische opgraving Haarlemmerstraat; Bitter, ‘Archeologisch bodemonderzoek’.
Nationaal Archief, Den Haag (hereafter NA), Graven van Holland, 3.01.01, no. 243, f. 48 (9 October 1324) and f. 49v (18 March 1325); Van Mieris, Handvesten, privilegien, octroyen, 503–4; Van Oerle, Leiden, 1:181.
De Boer and Vos, ‘Van Vrouwekapel tot Vrouwekerk’; NA, Abdij van Rijnsburg, 3.18.20, no. 957 (16 February 1364, vidimus by the bailiff, aldermen and council of Leiden dated on 20 February 1364).
Bitter, ‘Archeologisch onderzoek’, 88.
De Baar, ‘De voorstad’.
Suurmond-van Leeuwen, ‘Verslag’, 20.
Van der Vlist, ‘“Rapenburg Revisited”’.
Orlers, Beschrijvinge der stad Leyden, 28.
Accounts of Pieterskerk, transcription by Ed van der Vlist, https://www.oudleiden.nl/werkgroepen/jan-van-hout-archiefonderzoek/rekeningen-pieterskerk-1398–1428 (accessed 8 February 2024).
Verduin, Ploters, vollers en drapeniers, 305.
Van der Vlist, ‘“Rapenburg Revisited”’, 39–40.
Brand, Over macht en overwicht, 206–10.
Van Oerle, Leiden, 1:251–73. From historical sources, images and archaeological studies, we know much more about the later medieval city defenses. Several more archaeological and building history observations have been made since 2005.
Orsel, ‘Zijn er nog “veel” middeleeuwse huizen’; Orsel, ‘Bouwhistorie’.
For brick and ‘verstening’ generally, see Hollestelle, De steenbakkerij; Meischke, ‘Huizen en keuren’; Coomans and Van Royen, Medieval Brick Architecture.
Dijkstra and Brandenburgh, Leiden-Aalmarktschool, 322–324, 329, 335–336.
Orsel, ‘Zijn er nog “veel” middeleeuwse huizen’, 117; Dijkstra and Brandenburgh, Leiden-Aalmarktschool, 329, 335–36.
Dijkstra and Brandenburgh, Leiden-Aalmarktschool, 162–171, 321–336.
Orsel, ‘Zijn er nog “veel” middeleeuwse huizen’; Orsel, De ordinaire kap; Van der Vlist, ‘De stedelijke ruimte’, 51–53.
Hamaker, De middeneeuwsche keurboeken; Dröge, ‘Bauvorschrift’, 271.
Meischke, ‘Huizen en keuren’, 217.
De Boer, ‘Leiden in de middeleeuwen’, 39–40; De Baar, ‘Dakpannen’, 25.
Meischke, ‘Huizen en keuren’.
Van Oosten, ‘De Leidse steen des aanstoots’.
Ter Kuile, ‘Baksteenformaten’.
Orsel, ‘Stenen van de Graaf’.
Van Oosten, ‘De Leidse steen des aanstoots’.
Orsel, ‘Zijn er nog “veel” middeleeuwse huizen’, 127.
Orsel, De ordinaire kap, 249–63.
Dijkstra and Brandenburgh, Leiden-Aalmarktschool, 313–15.
Orsel, De ordinaire kap, 53–54.
See, in general: Rutte and Abrahamse, Atlas van de verstedelijking.
Carmiggelt et al., ‘Mapping Three Towns’.
Orsel, De ordinaire kap, 249–63.
Rutte and Abrahamse, Atlas van de verstedelijking, 170–75.
Orsel, De ordinaire kap, 15.
Van Maanen, ‘Stadsbeeld’.
Van Oosten et al., ‘Bewoningsgeschiedenis’.