1 Introduction
Miskawayh (d. 421/1030) called his monograph on ethics TahdhÄ«b al-AkhlÄq wa-Taá¹hÄ«r al-AÊ¿rÄq (âRefinement of Character and the Purification of Natural Dispositionsâ) (Miskawayh 1966; 2002). An alternative title is KitÄb ṬahÄrat al-Nafs (âBook on the Purity of the Soulâ). These titles are illuminating. We will try to show that his book is a kind of a program of self-education, a constant endeavour to improve self-discipline by learning and practicing virtues, which in Miskawayhâs Neoplatonic formulation, leads to âpurification of the soul.â
2 Miskawayh and His Cultural Background
Miskawayhâs concepts and language reflect the spirit of his time. As secretary of the BÅ«yids (r. 334â454/934â1062) in Baghdad and in Rayy near Tehran, he had contacts with many scholars. He was the librarian of the vizier AbÅ« al-Faá¸l Ibn al-Ê¿AmÄ«d (d. 360/970), whose letters on meteorological, astronomical and psychological questions (Daiber 1993), sent to the BÅ«yid ruler Ê¿Aá¸ud al-Dawla (d. 372/983), gives an impression of the richness of his library. Miskawayh was especially interested in philosophy, and his books portray knowledge of Greek sources like Aristotle (d. 322 BCE), Galen (d. 216 CE), Alexandrian commentaries of Aristotle, and Neoplatonic adaptations of Aristotelian texts, especially of Aristotleâs Nicomachean Ethics, including a summary of the Nicomachean Ethics, called in its Arabic-Latin translation by Hermannus Alemanus (d. 1272 CE) Summa Alexandrinorum (cf. the new edition and analysis by Woerther 2020, 12n29), doxographical texts like the treatise on the virtues of the soul (faá¸Äʾil al-nafs) attributed to Plato (d. 347/348 BCE); his own collections of proverbs attributed to Greek philosophers and pre-Islamic Persian wises, called JÄwÄ«dÄn-Khirad (= al-Ḥikma al-KhÄlida, âEternal Wisdomâ); Neoplatonic texts like Plotinus (d. 270 CE) in the adaptation of a Theology attributed to Aristotle, or Porphyry (d. 305 CE) and his pupil Iamblichus (d. ca. 325 CE). Iamblichusâ commentary, lost in the Greek original, on the pseudo-Pythagorean Chrysea EpÄ (âGolden Versesâ) is preserved in an Arabic translation (Daiber 1995). Another source of Miskawayh, is a text on education of the youth attributed to the Neopythagorean Bryson (d. between 100 BCE and 200 CE). Some of the mentioned Greek sources became known to Miskawayh through Islamic philosophers like al-KindÄ« (d. between 247/861 and 259/873) and al-FÄrÄbÄ« (d. 339/950 or 951), or there were common sources, such as, for example, the ethics of the encyclopaedia of the IkhwÄn al-á¹¢afÄʾ (Sincere Brethren) from the fourth/tenth century that shares with Miskawayh similar Neoplatonic concepts and propagates the value of love and friendship.1
The eclecticism from so many Greek and Arabic sources is a mirror image of the open-mindedness of a society which shared their texts and ideas, and was engaged in many discussions organised in learned circlesâI mention AbÅ« ḤayyÄn al-TawḥīdÄ« (d. 414/1023) and his correspondence with Miskawayh on ethical and philosophical questions, the KitÄb al-HawÄmil wa-l-ShawÄmil (âRambling and Comprehensive Questionsâ), which has been recently edited with an English translation. In the answers on questions by AbÅ« ḤayyÄn al-TawḥīdÄ« we find several topics discussed by Miskawayh, like knowledge (al-TawḥīdÄ« and Miskawayh 2019, 1:52â57, 80â83, 206â211), friendship/partnership (al-TawḥīdÄ« and Miskawayh 2019, 1:98â103, 198â203), fear of death (al-TawḥīdÄ« and Miskawayh 2019, 1:112â117), justice/injustice (al-TawḥīdÄ« and Miskawayh 2019, 1:130â135), health and illness of the soul (al-TawḥīdÄ« and Miskawayh 2019, 1:236f.). The answers given by Miskawayh appear to be preliminary steps of his later written TahdhÄ«b al-AkhlÄq.
All scholars of that time share a similar tendency: The return to the past; to Greek thinkers and their echo in Islamic thinkers who share one common and universal valueâthe value of knowledge in the context of the Islamic religion. This common value shared by all nations is ethicsâit is the ethicisation of knowledge.2 The Jewish scholar Joel Kraemer gave his book on the cultural revival during the BÅ«yid age the title Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam (1986; 1992 2nd ed.) because of the return of this period to Greek models, comparable with the humanistic movement during the European Renaissance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
This comparison is misleading, as it neglects the background of the Islamic religion. Ethicisation of knowledge means the rediscovery of human dignity in the context of the Islamic religion. As we shall show, the use of Greek sources is overshadowed by Islamic ethical values. The result is the rise of Islamic humanism during the BÅ«yid age.
3 An Analysis of Miskawayhâs TahdhÄ«b al-AkhlÄq
Miskawayhâs ethics can be considered as a program of ethicisation of knowledge. In his historical work TajÄrib al-Umam wa-TaÊ¿Äqub al-Himam (âThe Experiences of the Nations and the Consequences of their Ambitionsâ), Miskawayh considers the experiences of history as a valuable moral reference for mankind. Unlike religion, which is neglected in this work by Miskawayh, history is the achievement of a single human being and not primarily the guidance by the saints and prophets who received divine revelation (cf. Rosenthal 1952, 141f.; Bosworth 2002; Endress 2017, 330; Radez 2019). For this reason, in Miskawayhâs ethics, the prophetic revelation and al-FÄrÄbÄ«âs concept of the ruler as prophet and philosopher in the Perfect State is pushed into the background. Miskawayh rediscovered the role of the individual within society, which is shaped by harmony, love and friendship.
His ethical work TahdhÄ«b al-AkhlÄq is accordingly structured, and in using the philosophical language of his time it is divided into six treatises (maqÄlÄt), mainly focused on the human soul.3
3.1 First Treatise: The Soul, Its Parts and Their Role
The first treatise (Miskawayh 1966, 3â30; 2002, 5â26) discusses the role of the soul and its three Platonic parts, the rational, the irascible and the appetitive power, for the attainment of the virtues âknowledgeâ (Ê¿ilm) and âwisdomâ (ḥikma), âtemperanceâ (Ê¿iffa) and âgenerosityâ (sakhÄʾ), and finally âprudenceâ (ḥilm) and âcourageâ (shajÄÊ¿a). The balance of the mentioned three groups of virtues leads to âjusticeâ (Ê¿adl).
3.2 The Second Treatise: The Soul as Cornerstone of Character and Education
The second treatise (Miskawayh 1966, 31â73; 2002, 29â65; cf. Endress 2017, 323f. and 338f.) states that the soul is the cornerstone of human character and education. The character, a âstateâ (ḥÄl) of the soul, can be trained through education that is oriented by the âlawâ (sharÄ«Ê¿a) (cf. Miskawayh 1966, 35, 13ff.; 2002, 32f.). Its perfection is appropriate for human beings and it is a combination of knowledge, theoretical perfection and the realisation of knowledge, practical perfection, or perfection of the character (cf. Miskawayh 1966, 39: lines 15ff.; 2002, 36f.). Miskawayh dedicates a long section, taken from the Oikonomikos (âEconomicsâ) by the Pythagorean Bryson, to the education of the youth (Miskawayh 1966, 55â63; 2002, 50â56; cf. Endress 2017, 324): This section stresses such values as love of honour, the observance of religious traditions and duties, temperance, dissociation from the bad, learning by heart good traditions, good manners in eating, clothing and behaviour. A perfect character leads to happiness and is reserved for the perfect philosopher or for the prophet who receives divine revelation. Miskawayh does not further elaborate on this idea. Remarkable here is Miskawayhâs allusion to al-FÄrÄbÄ«âs concept of the ruler as a philosopher and prophet. He expands on this idea through his conception of the education of the individual. Education is a constant process of striving for the attainment of knowledge and its realisation. It requires the guidance of teachers. In allusion to al-FÄrÄbÄ«, Miskawayh speaks of âmanagers of cities,â who should guide every person to intellectual happiness and thereupon to âpractical arts and sensible activitiesâ (Miskawayh 1966, 72: lines 10ff.; 2002, 64). Here, education leads to the improvement of the character and happiness.
3.3 Third Treatise: Virtues and Knowledge
The third treatise (Miskawayh 1966, 75â91; 2002, 69â91) gives, based on late Greek sources (cf. Endress 2017, 324f.), an enumeration of the degrees of happiness and the virtues leading to happiness. The âspiritual virtueâ (al-faá¸Ä«la al-rūḥÄniyya) that leads to perfect happiness, requires the highest degree of knowledge, and the highest level of perfection in manâs actions.
3.4 Fourth Treatise: Practical Virtues
In the fourth treatise (Miskawayh 1966, 105â134; 2002, 95â119) Miskawayh turns to the practical aspects that lead to the realisation and attainment of happiness. He discusses the virtues in manâs actions, that lead to justice: Miskawayh gives a detailed exposition of the practices of virtue, courage, abstinence, generosity, and above all, justice. Justice is recognised as the balance of all virtues, which includes the duties towards God, towards fellow human beings, towards the forebears, and towards duties of worship.
3.5 Fifth Treatise: Love and Friendship
An expansion of this treatise on virtues is the fifth treatise (Miskawayh 1966, 135â173; 2002, 123â154) on love and friendship. The human individual naturally inclines towards âcompanionshipâ (uns), which bonds societal relations and creates solidarity. Miskawayh propagates religion and its gatherings for the worship of God as something resulting not only from the SharÄ«Ê¿a but also from accepted customs. A cornerstone of solidarity is love and friendship which must be regulated by social rules.
3.6 Sixth Treatise: The Health of the Soul
3.6.1 Its Preservation
In the last treatise of Miskawayhâs book on ethics, in his treatises on the health of the soul, its preservation and its restoration (Miskawayh 1966, 175â222; 2002, 157â196), he takes up and continues the discussion of the first treatise on the soul. Based on his discussion of the cardinal virtues and Galenâs doctrine of the four temperaments, Miskawayh gives practical advice for the preservation of the soulâs health (Miskawayh 1966, 176â191; 2002, 158â170) and the restoration of it (Miskawayh 1966, 191â222; 2002, 170â196). In the foreword, he explains the diseases of the soul in allusion to the Aristotelian (cf. Aristotle 1991, De Anima 403 a 3ff.) and Galenic (cf. Galen 1972; Fichtner 2018, no. 28) doctrine; that man is composed of his body and the âdivine, incorporeal faculty,â his soul. Diseases might have their origin in the soul, when man is entertaining thoughts of an evil nature, or when he is frightened; or diseases can be caused by manâs constitution or his senses. Miskawayh explains this in detail and offers various examples taken from daily life, such as: The health of the soul can be preserved through association of man with good people, and through constant reflection and acting accordinglyâby observing such virtues as friendliness, truthfulness, moderation and prudence, diligence, self-control, attentiveness, sincerity, and critical forbearance. Here, we can easily detect Platonic and Aristotelian virtues and explanations taken from Galenâs Ethics. Moreover, in a passage on the examination of conscience, on manâs rebuke of his soul, attributed to the philosopher al-KindÄ« (Miskawayh 1966, 190, 3ff.; 2002, 169), we detect an echo of the pseudo-Pythagorean Golden Verses (verses 40â42). They might have reached al-KindÄ« through their Arabic translation with Iamblichusâ commentary (Daiber 1995), orâin the present case more likelyâfrom Galenâs Peri DiagnÅseÅs kai Therapeias tÅn en tÄ Hekastou PsychÄ IdiÅn PathÅn (= De Propriorum Animi Cuiuslibet Affectuum Dignotione et Curatione, âThe Diagnosis and Treatment of the Passions Peculiar to Each Personâs Soulâ) (Galen 1937, ch. 6 and 10; Galen 1963, 49),4 which was translated into Syriac and Arabic (see Fichtner 2018, no. 29), and which Miskawayh quoted on the preceding page as TaÊ¿arruf al-Marʾ Ê¿UyÅ«b Nafsih (âManâs Understanding the Defects of His Soulâ) (Miskawayh 1966, 189: lines 2ff.; 2002, 168f).5
3.6.2 Its Restoration
In the following section, Miskawayh discusses the possibilities of restoring the health of a soul. According to him, the health of the soul is dependent upon the presence of an internal balance. This balance between two extremes can be reached through âactivity (ḥaraka), effort (saÊ¿y), and diligence (ijtihÄd)â (Miskawayh 1966, 191: lines 11f.; 2002, 170). The balance between two extremes leads to the four cardinal virtues, which Miskawayh mentions here as âcourageâ (shajÄÊ¿a), âabstinenceâ (Ê¿iffa), âwisdomâ (ḥikma), and âjusticeâ (Ê¿adÄla) (Miskawayh 1966, 193: lines 6â9; 2002, 172). In the footsteps of Galenâs Peri DiagnÅseÅs kai Therapeias tÅn en tÄ Hekastou PsychÄ IdiÅn PathÅn, the main cause for the illness of a soul is the irascible part of the soul, which canâconsidering the temperament of a personâbecome the seat of âanger,â of an âagitation,â âas a result of which the blood of the heart boils in a passion for vengeanceâ (Miskawayh 1966, 193: lines 17f.; 2002, 172).6 Miskawayh gives many examples of bad character traits arising from anger. They can be changed through moderation, self-control, sincerity and magnanimity.
3.6.3 Remedy of Fear
The knowledge of possible misfortunes in the future is a strong remedy against fear, which arises if the irascible part of the soul has no âagitationâ and if cowardice and a feeling of faintness prevail (Miskawayh 1966, 205: lines 11f.; 2002, 182). Consequently, Miskawayh argues that fear of death can be abolished through knowledge of the shortcomings of life before death and knowledge of the immortality of the soul after its separation from the body (Miskawayh 1966, 216: lines 13ff.; 2002, 191; cf. Endress 2017, 334 and 342). In this regard, we quote a crucial passage:
The intelligent man (Ê¿Äqil), therefore, should shrink from incompletion and find comfort in being complete. He should seek everything that could make him complete and perfect, that could ennoble him and raise his rank, and that could free him in such a way as to make him safe from falling into captivity rather than tighten his fetters and add to his complexity and entanglement. He should also trust in the fact that, when the noble and divine substance is delivered from the thick and corporeal one, in purity and clarity rather than in mixture and turbidity, that substance attains happiness, returns to its heavenly abode, gets closer to its Creator, wins the proximity of the Lord of the universe, associates with its kindred and fellows among the good spirits, and escapes from what is contrary and foreign to it.
Miskawayh 1966, 212: lines 18â213, line 3; 2002, 188
3.6.4 Remedy of Grief
Miskawayh ends his book with a section on the âremedy of grief.â About âthe loss of a dear one or the failure to fulfill a desireâ; similar to the fear of death, grief can be cured by insight into the transience of the world, contrary to the world of the intellect. As a corroboration of this, Miskawayh adds a long excerpt from al-KindÄ«âs treatise DafÊ¿ al-AḥzÄn (âThe Repelling of Griefsâ): Consolation and remedy from grief about the loss of property is the conscious awareness of a possible loss of possessions, as God has entrusted them to His creatures (Miskawayh 1966, 219: lines 12â222, line 19; 2002, 194â196). Al-KindÄ«âs text is transmitted in varying versions, which ultimately might go back to a lost Hellenistic treatise with the title Perì AlypÃas (âOn Freedom of Pain/Griefâ) perhaps written by Themistius (d. ca. 388 CE) or Plutarch (d. ca. 125 CE).
4 Ethics as Likeness to God: The Way from Plato to Miskawayh (cf. Daiber 2021)
Al-KindÄ«, in the complete version of his treatise RisÄla fÄ« l-Ḥīla li-DafÊ¿ al-AḥzÄn (âOn the Method of How to Dispel Sorrowâ) (cf. Adamson and Endress 2017, 160f. and 193f.),7 advises the neglect of worldly things and the concentration on the intelligible world by âimitating God.â This imitation of God is, according to al-KindÄ«, attained through human virtues, through good behaviour and acting. This will lead to nearness to God and knowledge of Him (cf. Daiber 1996, 844, and on the editions of the KindÄ«-text 843n24).
The similarity of the al-KindÄ« text to our quotation from Miskawayhâs chapter on the fear of death, its causes and its remedy is obvious. The quotation mirrors the transformation of the Platonic doctrine of the soul and its three parts âirascibleâ (thymikon), âdesiringâ (epithymetikon) and ârationalâ (logistikon) (cf. the references in Daiber 1971, 34f.) into the Neoplatonic concept of the soul returning to its divine origin. Al-KindÄ« and after him Miskawayh follow the Neoplatonic tradition of Plotinusâand also of Iamblichus (cf. Daiber 1995, 28f). Al-KindÄ« in his al-Qawl fÄ« l-Nafs (âDiscourse on the Soulâ) had developed a philosophical foundationâpossibly following the Neoplatonic tradition of the Vita Pythagorica as shaped by Porphyry and his student Iamblichus (cf. Daiber 1995, 32f.). It explains that the soul consists of three partsâas we found them in Miskawayhâs excerpt of the treatise on Faá¸ÄÊ¿il al-Nafs (âThe Virtues of the Soulâ) (Miskawayh 1966, 86: lines 7â90, line 21; 2002, 77â81). It is eager to release itself from the body through ethical virtues and to return to its divine origin, the realm of the intelligible world.8 Al-KindÄ« does not offer a fully developed ethical doctrine, this remains reserved to AbÅ« Bakr al-RÄzÄ« (d. 313/925), al-FÄrÄbÄ«, and above all, to Miskawayh.
These philosophers have continued the Neoplatonic tradition, insofar as they share the common concept of happiness, which can be reached by the freeing of manâs soul from worldly possessions, by manâs virtuous acting and his increasing knowledge (cf. Daiber 2010, 73f. and 77). According to Miskawayh, this knowledge is perfected in the âperfect manâ (insÄn kÄmil), who is either a âperfect philosopherâ (ḥakÄ«m tÄmm) because of his âinspirationsâ (ilhÄmÄt) in his philosophical attempts and through heavenly support in his âintellectual conceptionsâ (taá¹£awwurÄt Ê¿aqliyya). Or he is a prophet supported by God, as he obtains divine ârevelationâ (waḥy) in varying grades. He will then become an intermediary between âthe higher worldâ (al-malaʾ al-aÊ¿lÄ) and âthe lower worldâ (al-malaʾ al-asfal) (Miskawayh 1966, 70, 15â20; 2002, 62). This formulation is a clear echo of a specification introduced by al-FÄrÄbÄ«, who added the concept of prophecy as a prerequisite for the philosopher.9 According to al-FÄrÄbÄ«, the ruler in the Perfect State is a philosopher and he is a prophet who rules the cityâinspired by God and emulating Godâs rule (Daiber 1986, 17nn79â80). In addition, Miskawayh and al-FÄrÄbÄ« mirror an accentuation in Iamblichus, who combined philosophy with theurgic revelation and herewith, had modified his teacher Porphyry (cf. Shaw 2011, 122â129).
The common Neoplatonic tradition in Miskawayh and al-FÄrÄbÄ«, appears to be mixed in the latter mainly with Platonic and Aristotelian ideas (on al-FÄrÄbÄ« cf. Daiber 2007). This means, al-FÄrÄbÄ« is concentrating on epistemology and the concept of knowledge; of learning and acquiring knowledge.
5 What Is New in Miskawayhâs Ethics?
Miskawayh, however, is more focused on Aristotleâs Nicomachean Ethics, which he represents combined with Hellenistic, Neoplatonic interpretations (cf. Endress 2017, 322â326 and 337â344). These Neoplatonic interpretations gave his ethics a specific shape. Miskawayhâs TahdhÄ«b al-AkhlÄq is not a book on political thought, containing rules for rulers and ruled, like al-FÄrÄbÄ«âs MabÄdiʾ ÄrÄʾ Ahl al-MadÄ«na al-FÄá¸ila (âThe Principles of the Opinions of the Inhabitants of the Virtuous Cityâ). On the contrary, it is a book on the virtues of the individual. And his individualâas formulated by Miskawayh in a passage attributed to Aristotleâis endowed with âwisdomâ (ḥikma) and âintellectâ (Ê¿aql) and should âaim with all his capacities (bi-jamÄ«Ê¿ quwÄhu) to live a divine life (ḥayÄt ilÄhiyya)â (Miskawayh 1966, 171: lines 13â15; 2002, 152).10 This aim requires, as Miskawayh says in the footsteps of Aristotleâs Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle 1991, book I, ch. 8, 1099: col. A I. 31âcol. B I. 7; on the Arabic translation, cf. Akasoy and Fidora 2005, 7â16, 142â143), a âmoderate amount of external goodsâ (al-qaá¹£d min al-khayrÄt al-khÄrijiyya) (Miskawayh 1966, 172; 2002, 153).
Miskawayhâs book TahdhÄ«b al-AkhlÄq is not primarily addressed to the citizens, to the rulers and the ruled. It is a guidebook on ethics for the individual, for training his character and teaching him the right behaviour towards his fellow beings. Love, friendship (cf. Miskawayh 1966, 5th treatise)11 and justice (cf. Miskawayh 1966, 4th treatise) are for the benefit of the individual and are the only means for attaining happiness and knowledge. Human virtues, however, are imperfect: Who has knowledge of real happiness and the real good, can âendeavourâ (jahd) âto gain His (Godâs) favourâ (yataqarrabu ilayhi) and can try âto obtainâ (yaá¹lub) Godâs âpleasureâ (mará¸Ät) âas far as he is ableâ (bi-qadr á¹Äqatihi), so that âhe resembles (yataqayyalu) (cf. Lane 1863, s.v. q-y-á¸)12 (Godâs) acts to the extent of his capacity (istiá¹ÄÊ¿a)â (Miskawayh 1966, 170: lines 4â7; 2002, 151). According to Miskawayh, there exists a hierarchy between God, the angels and those âwho seek to be like Godâ (mutaʾallihÄ«n) (Miskawayh 1966, 169: line 13; 2002, 151).13
This hierarchy reappears in a similar way and read partly with identical terminology, in a commentary on the pseudo-Pythagorean Golden Verses, written by the Neoplatonist Iamblichus. Iamblichus distinguishes between God, âthe angels who are close (to the Gods)â (malÄʾika muqarrabÅ«n)14 and the âgodlikeâ (ilÄhiyyÅ«n) who are souls which âassumed a human shapeâ (taʾannasat), abandoned worldly pleasures and are looking for their âgoodâ (maá¹£Äliḥ) (Daiber 1995, 40â41: lines 5â11, cf. 18f.). Iamblichus recommends a moderate acquisition of possessions, insofar as it is necessary and useful for man (Daiber 1995, 54â55: lines 2â6, cf. 26â28), who is âon the path of virtueâ (sabÄ«l al-faá¸Ä«la) by âreflectingâ (bi-shughl al-fikr) on the paths leading to virtues, away from the âbodyâ (badan). Everyone is obliged to tackle difficult situations and to endure trials as possibilities to learn, to find the right way and to avoid sensual âdelightsâ (ladhdhÄt), by his capacity (cf. Daiber 1995, 58â59: lines 13â22). Perfect human virtues of man, whose soul participates in the divine being (cf. Daiber 1995, 20f.), pave the way to the divine virtue (cf. Daiber 1995, 88â89: lines 21â23, cf. 20, 26 and 29f.). The reasonable part of the soul urges the disobedient part to keep to the virtues and to become habituated to them. This is a process of âlearningâ (dars), leading to âeducationâ (takharruj), âexperienceâ (tadarrub, khibra) and âpatienceâ (á¹£abr), also in dealing with others (cf. Daiber 1995, 62 and 63: lines 6â10, and 86 and 87: lines 14â18, 22â25).15 Iamblichus understood philosophy as âconformity with the divineâ (hÄ pros ton theion homologia) and âknowledge of the godsâ as perfect virtue, wisdom and happiness, making man âsimilar to godsâ (cf. Daiber 1995, 30f.).16
Iamblichusâ concept of a similarity between man and God and of the existence of the divine soul in man is ultimately Platonic. It instigated him in contrast to his teacher Porphyry to the assumption of theurgic virtues as a way to receive theurgic revelations (cf. Daiber 2021, 530n77).
The Alexandrians and Ammonius (d. 242 CE) did not go as far, and instead spoke of assimilation to God through virtues leading to knowledge of God. Herewith, they deviate from Plotinus and follow the Neoplatonic and Pythagorean tradition of Iamblichus. We found an echo in al-Kindī and above all in the ethics of Miskawayh.
6 Miskawayhâs Way from Practical Ethics to âSpiritual Medicineâ: A Comparison with AbÅ« Bakr al-RÄzÄ« and a Rediscovered Galenic Source
Miskawayhâs ethics is a guideline for training the character leading to practical and âspiritualâ virtues and leading to knowledge. This deliberates manâs soul from the deficiencies of the body and lets his soul return to its divine origin. Miskawayhâs book thus became a practical handbook on âspiritual medicineâ (á¹ibb rūḥÄnÄ«). Preceding him, the famous physician AbÅ« Bakr al-RÄzÄ« had written a book with this title.17 This book is less extensive and differs in its structure, and has not always used the same sources: Different from Miskawayhâs Aristotelianism, mixed up with Neoplatonism and Galenism, AbÅ« Bakr al-RÄzÄ« keeps to Platonism and the Platonic traditions that he found in Galenâs Ethics Peri EthÅn (De Moribus, âOn Moral Characterâ),18 mixing up the Platonic doctrine of the assimilation to God with the Neoplatonic concept of the soulâs liberation from the body through good actions and increasing intellectual insight, thus, leading to nearness to God (cf. Daiber 2017, 404â405).
This interest in ethics as a likeness to God is shared by Miskawayh. And there is another commonality with Miskawayh: At the end of chapter 4 in his al-Ṭibb al-RūḥÄnÄ« (âSpiritual Medicineâ) AbÅ« Bakr al-RÄzÄ« states that he used Galenâs book MaqÄla fÄ« Anna al-AkhyÄr Min al-NÄs Qad YantafiÊ¿Å«na bi-AÊ¿dÄʾihim (âEssay on How the Best People Can Benefit from Their Enemiesâ),19 and another book by Galen that he epitomised bears the title TaÊ¿arruf al-Marʾ Ê¿UyÅ«b Nafsih (âHow a Man May Uncover the Vices of His Soulâ).20 Both Galenic titles were also mentioned by Miskawayh, in a different sequence. Both, AbÅ« Bakr al-RÄzÄ« and Miskawayh here have excerpted only Galenâs TaÊ¿arruf al-Marʾ Ê¿UyÅ«b Nafsihâapparently independently from each other: The excerpts differ in length and are taken from Galenâs Peri DiagnÅseÅs kai Therapeias tÅn en tÄ Hekastou PsychÄ IdiÅn PathÅn (Galen 1937, ch. 3; 1963, 32â36). Miskawayh adds the remark âthat one cannot be satisfied (yuqnaÊ¿u) with what Galen saidââperhaps this criticism is directed against the comprehensibility of the Arabic translation. The original text of Galen contains other conceptions that reappear in different contexts in AbÅ« Bakr al-RÄzÄ« and Miskawayh. It suffices to mention here: The constant improvement of oneâs character leads to the likeness to God, diligence, self-sufficiency, moderation and suppression of greediness, association with and consultation of good people, friendship, the fight against anger, fear and griefâall of which are diseases of the soulâ, constant reflection, and discipline.
7 Conclusion
The qualities mentioned in Galenâs Peri DiagnÅseÅs kai Therapeias tÅn en tÄ Hekastou PsychÄ IdiÅn PathÅn are expanded in Miskawayh to an elaborate handbook on the education of man and his soul. It uses key terms of Galenâs ethics in his De Moribus and integrates Galen in Aristotleâs Nicomachean Ethics and its discussion of virtues, love, friendship, and justice. The Aristotelian text is connected with Neoplatonic comments taken from Greek-Hellenistic texts, partly ascribed to Porphyry and transforming the Platonic doctrine of the soul and its three parts âirascibleâ (thymikon), âdesiringâ (epithymetikon) and ârationalâ (logistikon) into the Neoplatonic concept of the soul returning to its divine origin (for details cf. Daiber 2021). Moreover, Miskawayh uses texts on the âvirtues of the soul,â among them a doxographical treatise on the Virtues of the Soul ascribed to Plato, and possibly a Pythagorean text on the Golden Verses combined with Iamblichusâ commentary. Finally, Miskawayh quotes texts by al-KindÄ«ânot to speak of those texts he might have known without quoting them and which were circulating during his lifetime, like AbÅ« Bakr al-RÄzÄ«âs al-Ṭibb al-RūḥÄnÄ« or the ethical part of the RasÄʾil IkhwÄn al-á¹¢afÄʾ (âEpistles of the Brethren of Purityâ) (cf. Daiber 2021, 531n79).
8 Echoes of Miskawayhâs Ethics in the Muslim World
It is not astonishing that Miskawayhâs text with its complexity and its configuration of so many texts attracted the interest of many Muslim scholars. Remarkable is the tendency to adduce examples from QurʾÄn and ḥadÄ«th as confirmation of Miskawayhâs philosophical doctrines. Here, I will mention al-RÄghib al-Iá¹£fahÄnÄ« (d. fifth/eleventh century) and his religious ethics al-DharÄ«Ê¿a ilÄ MakÄrim al-SharÄ«Ê¿a (âThe Means to the Noble Traits of SharÄ«Ê¿aâ) (cf. Daiber 1991; Mohamed 1995; 1998; and above all 2006 in which his 2002 and 2003 articles are integrated). Herewith, al-RÄghib became a model for al-GhazÄlÄ«âs (d. 505/1111) ethical work and for al-GhazÄlÄ«âs critical reception of Miskawayhâs ethics (cf. Abul Quasem 1974).21 An echo of Miskawayhâs ethics can be found in scholars like Naṣīr al-DÄ«n al-ṬūsÄ« (d. 672/1274), AkhlÄq-i NÄá¹£irÄ« (âNasirean Ethicsâ) (cf. Madelung 1985), and through his mediation by Iranian philosophers like JalÄl al-DÄ«n al-DawwÄnÄ« (d. 908/1502) (cf. Siddiqi 1963), and the Syriac Bishop and philosopher Gregory Barhebraeus (d. 685/1286) in his Butyrium Sapientiae (âCream of Wisdomâ), the part on practical philosophy (cf. Zonta 1998; Joosse 2004). Moreover, in Jewish philosophers like Maimonides (d. 600/1204) and Ibn Falaquera (d. ca. 694/1295) (cf. Harvey 1991; Chiesa 1990),22 in the ShÄ«Ê¿Ä« philosopher and theologian Muḥammad MahdÄ« al-NarÄqÄ« (d. 1210/1795) (cf. Cole 1989), in the Egyptian writers and intellectuals of the Egyptian renaissance (nahá¸a) RifÄÊ¿a al-Ṭahá¹ÄwÄ« (d. 1290/1873) (Cole 1980; cf. also al-Khatib 2019b, 159â161), Muḥammad Ê¿Abduh (d. 1323/1905) and his pupil Muḥammad RashÄ«d Riá¸Ä (d. 1354/1935) (cf. al-Khatib 2019b, 163f). We have no clear idea about the relation of Miskawayhâs ethics to his contemporary Ibn SÄ«nÄ (d. 428/1037) (cf. first observations by Preissler 1980), to the ethics of the Christian YaḥyÄ Ibn Ê¿AdÄ« (d. 363/974) (cf. al-TakrÄ«tÄ« 1978, introduction), to the ShÄfiÊ¿Ä« jurist al-MÄwardÄ« (d. 450/1058) in his books on political science (cf. Bin SaÊ¿Ä«d 1982 for comparison with al-FÄrÄbÄ«, Miskawayh and Ibn KhaldÅ«n) and to the political philosopher ShihÄb al-DÄ«n Ibn AbÄ« l-RabÄ«Ê¿, who seems to belong to the seventh/thirteenth century.23 Al-MÄwardÄ« and Ibn AbÄ« l-RabÄ«Ê¿ appear to be examples of âethicisationâ of lawâa sign of Miskawayhâs influence. In his SulÅ«k al-Malik fÄ« TadbÄ«r al-MamÄlik (âConduct of the Master in the Management of the Kingdomâ) Ibn AbÄ« l-RabÄ«Ê¿ propagates the way of the Prophet as the way to moral and spiritual reflection, as well as material welfare. Herewith, his book became an early example for the Islamic ethicisation of fiqh in the footsteps of Miskawayhâs ethics. Ibn AbÄ« l-RabÄ«Ê¿âs inclusion of ethics in politics has a long prehistory, starting with Ibn al-MuqaffaÊ¿ (d. 142/759) in the second/eighth century, who wrote a âmirror of princesâ inspired by Aristotleâs Nicomachean Ethics (cf. Daiber 2015). This âmirror of princesâ received a philosophical fundament in Miskawayhâs ethics which gave the individual a new significance by introducing love, friendship and justice as cornerstones of human dignity.
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A first comparison of Miskawayh and IkhwÄn al-á¹¢afÄʾ can be found in BadawÄ« (1963).
In the term âethicisation,â I follow the terminology of al-Khaá¹Ä«b (2019a, 116): âEthicisation of fiqhâ (takhlÄ«q al-fiqh).
On Miskawayhâs concept of the soul cf. Endress (2017, 334ff.), and on his TahdhÄ«b cf. Endress (2017, 337â344).
On examination of conscience in antiquity cf. Hadot (1999, 231â233). On the Galenic text cf. Hadot (1999, 232n103).
Zurayk wrongly translates âManâs Understanding of His Own Defects.â On the association with virtuous friends cf. Galen (1937, ch. 3; 1963, 31â33).
On the comparison with the boiling of blood around the heart cf. Aristotle (1991, De Anima 403 a 31), and Adamson (2016, 67).
According to a recently published article there was no direct borrowing from Galenâs recently discovered
Al-Qawl fÄ« l-Nafs al-Mukhtaá¹£ar min KitÄb Arisá¹Å« wa-FalÄá¹un wa-SÄʾir al-FalÄsifa (cf. Adamson and Endress 2017, 147, 166 and 194).
For more details on parallels between al-FarÄbÄ« and Miskawayh, see Marcotte (1999, esp. 56â72).
On the term âdivine lifeâ cf. Aristotle (1991, book X, ch. 7. 1177 b 30f.); Akasoy and Fidora (2005, 561: line 12); al-FarÄbÄ« (1961, 560).
Perhaps, Miskawayh has given some inspiration to his contemporary AbÅ« ḤayyÄn al-TawḥīdÄ« (d. 414/1023), KitÄb al-á¹¢adÄqa wa-l-á¹¢adÄ«q (âBook on Friendship and Friendsâ). However, both authors share a common background, which in addition is mirrored in the contemporary IkhwÄn al-á¹¢afÄʾ (cf. Daiber 2021, 531n79). On al-TawḥīdÄ«âs KitÄb al-á¹¢adÄqa wa-l-á¹¢adÄ«q, cf. Alshaar (2015).
Zurayk (2002) translates âimitates.â
Walzer (1962, 228) translated mutaʾallihÄ«n with âdivine men,â giving the Greek equivalents theioi andres and ektheoumenoi.
The term âclose (to God)â (muqarrabÅ«n) corresponds to Greek
Echoes of Iamblichusâ remarks about the acquisition of experience in dealing with others and the critical reflection about others and oneself (cf. also Daiber 1995, 80â81: lines 10â82/83, line 23) appear in Miskawayh (1966, 190, 4â191, 4; 2002, 169f.), in a quotation attributed to al-KindÄ«.
On the concept of assimilation to God in Greek commentaries to the Golden Verses cf. Izdebska (2016). According to Izdebska (2016, 57â60) assimilation to God (apotheosis) does not exist in the Arabic Iamblichus. She considers the text to be âsomewhat inconsistentâ (Izdebska 2016, 58), and in another passage to be âa strange mixture of Islamic/Christian theologyâ (Izdebska 2016, 60). With regard to our comparison with Miskawayh and with Neoplatonic texts and in view of the contextualisation of Iamblichusâ commentary (see Daiber 1995, 17â34) Izdebskaâs interpretation is not convincing.
On its contents and analysis cf. Daiber 2017, 398â400; 401â403; Adamson 2016.
Preserved in an Arabic translation only (Fichtner 2018, no. 412). By the way, Galen refers to this text at the beginning of chapter 6 of his De Propriorum Animi Cuiuslibet Affectuum Dignotione et Curatione (âThe Diagnosis and Treatment of the Passions Peculiar to Each Personâs Soulâ).
Lost in the Greek original, but translated into Syriac and Arabic (not preserved) (see Fichtner 2018, no. 162).
The English translation by Arberry (1950, 37), wrongly has âHow a Man May Discover his Own Vices.â
For a comparison of al-GhazÄlÄ«âs and Miskawayhâs ethics cf. Sourdel (1989); Goodman (2003, index s.n. Miskawayh); Mohamed (2002; 2003, compares Miskawayh, al-GhazÄlÄ« and al-RÄghib al-Iá¹£fahÄnÄ«).
According to Chiesa, the parallels between Miskawayh and Ibn Falaquera are based on a common source, the Summa Alexandrinorum, which is preserved in the Arabic-Latin translation made in 1240 by Hermannus Alemannus. On this translation cf. the new edition and analysis by Woerther (2020).
On the date of Ibn AbÄ« l-RabÄ«Ê¿ cf. Dunlop in the introduction to his edition and translation of al-FÄrÄbÄ«âs Fuṣūl al-MadanÄ« (âAphorisms of the Statesmanâ) in al-FarÄbÄ« (1961, 6). On his SulÅ«k al-Malik cf. al-TakrÄ«tÄ« (1980). Al-TakrÄ«tÄ« compared Ibn AbÄ« l-RabÄ«Ê¿ with Miskawayh. Cf. also Hasanuz Zaman (1992).