Corresponding Denominations in Antiquity

Francesco Lopez

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ChapterÂ 2 Corresponding Denominations in Antiquity

äºThe Historical Landscape of Ancient KalabrÃa

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Francesco Lopez

Francesco Lopez
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DOI:: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004711822_004

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1 The Kalabros River on an Ancient Temesa Painting

The theme Kala- of the name Kala-ur/ br-ia, generally associated with the IE or possibly pre-IE root *kar/ *kal- âstoneâ, âwater-carved stoneâ,¹ as well as for the ancient Salentine Peninsula and the medieval land of Bruttii, occurs in the Greek and Latin sources for several other toponyms, hydronyms, and onomastics. The topic is complex when looking at the various features.² The geographer Pausanias (2nd centuryÂ C.E.) reports in his á¼Î»Î»á½±Î´Î¿Ï ÏÎµÏÎ¹á½µÎ³Î·ÏÎ¹Ï (App. #30) that he saw in Olympia a picture concerning the city of Temesa, reproduced from an older one possibly dating from the mid-6th centuryÂ B.C.E. Besides Temesa, the goddess Hera, the spring Lyka, and the demon Alybas, put to flight by the stripling Sybaris, the painting also depicted a river, which the manuscripts call Îá½±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿Ï or Îá½±Î»Î±ÏÏÎ¿Ï or Îá½±Î»Î±ÏÎ²ÏÎ¿Ï.³ The passage reads as follows:

It was a copy of an old picture. There were a stripling, Sybaris, a river, Kalabros, and a spring, Lyca. Besides, there were Hera and the city of Temesa, and in the midst was the ghost that Euthymus cast out. Horribly black in color, and exceedingly dreadful in all his appearance, he had a wolfâs skin thrown round him as a garment. The letters on the picture gave his name as Alybas.⁴

The forms -Î²ÏÎ¿Ï and -ÏÏÎ¿Ï are considered phonetically equivalent by scholars, since the semivocal pronunciation of /Ï/ and the aspirated one of /Î²/ produce the same sound.⁵ This form becomes clearer by considering the fricative character of /Î²/in a specific context of betacism. The phenomenon was widespread in the late Roman and Byzantine periods when, for example, the vowel /Ï/ in the diphthongs (Î±Ï, ÎµÏ, Î·Ï) generally tended to become a consonant (/Ï/ or /Î²/), as in the Modern Greek. On the other hand, the graphic confusion of -ÎµÎ²Î´-/-ÎµÏÎ´- or -Î±Î²Î´-/-Î±ÏÎ´- marked some Boeotian inscriptions as early as the 3rd centuryÂ C.E..⁶ The places depicted in the painting described by Pausanias remind us historically of several areas. Besides Temesa on the Tyrrhenian Sea, there was probably the area of Sybaris, with the âstripling Sybarisâ (Î½ÎµÎ±Î½á½·ÏÎºÎ¿Ï Î£á½»Î²Î±ÏÎ¹Ï) as a river (today called Sibari-Coscile), and the ÏÎ¿ÏÎ±Î¼á½¸Ï Îá½±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿Ï, which may recall the modern Esaro, a tributary of the river Crati. The Krotoniates would have renamed the Îá½±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿Ï after their victory over Sybaris in 510â¯B.C.E. by âepiklesisâ of the river Aesar, which washed around their city. The region of Croton may also have been represented, both because of its colonial relations with Temesa and because of the mention of the goddess á¼ÏÎ± in the myth. Finally, Metapontum could not be absent if we consider the demon á¼Î»á½»Î²Î±Ï and accept the tradition that considers Alybans as the earlier name of the city.⁷ Taken as a whole, these places geographically designated the area of modern central and northern Calabria, stretching from the Gulf of SantâEufemia on the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto on the Ionian Sea. The area defined the dominions of Croton, Sybaris, and Metapontum in the 6th centuryÂ B.C.E..⁸

FigureÂ 8

The Table from Pylos PY An 192, in which the term ka-ra-u-ro occurs as a male first name

Courtesy of the Palace of Nestor Excavations, Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati

FigureÂ 9

The Table of Pylos PY Jn. 750, in which the term ka-ra-u-ro occurs as a male first name

Courtesy of the Palace of Nestor Excavations, Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati

2 The Island of Kalauria and the Cult of Poseidon

Two Linear B Tablets from Pylos, dated to the second half of the 13th centuryÂ B.C.E., contain the term ka-ra-u-ro as a male proper name (FiguresÂ 8â9).⁹ The first interpreters of the Mycenaean documents associated the word with Îá½±Î»Î±ÏÏÎ¿Ï, the eponymous hero of the island of ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»ÏÎµÎ¹Î±¹⁰ or ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»ÏÎ¹Î±¹¹ or ÎÎ±Î»Î±ÏÏá½·Î±,¹² the modern Poros on the Saronic Gulf. The hero Îá½±Î»Î±ÏÏÎ¿Ï was described by Stephen of Byzantium as the son of the god Poseidon.¹³ In the entry Î¤Î±á½·Î½Î±ÏÎ¿Ï, however, the grammarian notes that Îá½³ÏÎ±Î¹ÏÏÎ¿Ï, Î¤Î±á½·Î½Î±ÏÎ¿Ï and Îá½±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿Ï were brothers and that all three were sons of Zeus.¹⁴ The island, which was controlled by the nearby town of Troezen during the Classical period,¹⁵ was considered to be close to Crete,¹⁶ although the lands were far apart. The ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»ÏÎ¹Î±-port¹⁷ served as a naval station,¹⁸ together with the nearest and larger of ÎÎµÎ»á½³Î½Î´ÎµÏÎ¹Ï, the port of Troezen, excavated on the rocky coast.¹⁹ ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»ÏÎ¹Î± today has a total area of about 31 square kilometres. It consists of a central limestone massif, crisscrossed with karst sinkholes and an irregular coastline having numerous bays and small creeks. Even the ancients emphasised its inaccessible and rocky nature (ÏÏÎ·ÏÎµá¿Î±²⁰ and saxosa²¹).²² On the island, immediately north-east of the main settlement, on the summit of the massif, a Doric temple of Poseidon was erected probably about 520â¯B.C.E..²³ It had a foundation of limestone and tuff columns (6â¯Ãâ¯12) within a rectangular enclosure, later enlarged in Classical and Hellenistic times, with numerous remains of four arcades and a prÃ²pylon. A sanctuary was built in the first half of the 7th centuryÂ B.C.E. The traces of painted pottery inside the shrine, dating back to the Geometric-Mycenaean period, indicate that the island was already inhabited in the early Bronze Age.²⁴ According to mythological tradition, the sanctuaries of Poseidon at Geraistos in Euboea, Kalauria in Troizenia, and Tainaron in Laconia probably stood in a special relationship to each other. The ship voyage of Tainaros with Kalauros²⁵ suggests that the sanctuary of Geraistos was the starting point from which the cult of Poseidon spread to Kalaureia and Tainaron, possibly through the tribes of the Minis, Driopiand and then the Mycenaeans.²⁶ In this case, the cult would date back to a pre-Hellenic phase. Another tradition claims that Kalauria originally belonged not to Poseidon but to Apollo. The island would have been consecrated to the God of the Sea only later.²⁷ As Strabo notes, Poseidonâs sanctuary in Kalauria was a place of shelter (asylum).²⁸ The Athenian orator Demosthenes sought refuge there in 322â¯B.C.E..²⁹ Moreover, Kalauria was probably the seat of an Amphictyonic league, connected with the temple and consisting of seven cities in the Archaic period.³⁰ For this reason, the ancient name of the island would have been Îá¼°Ïá½µÎ½Î·, âpeaceâ.³¹ The notion of âshelterâ is found for Poseidon Geraistos in the Odyssey.³² Returning from Troy, Nestor, Diomedes, and Menelaus set sail from Lesbos and landed at night in ÎÎµÏÎ±Î¹ÏÏá½¹Î½ (Euboea), where they sacrificed many bulls to Poseidon. The place was the only safe landing point on the rocky coast of eastern Euboea and a refuge for the ships that passed through the Andros Channel during the storms.³³

3 Balkan Area between Dardania, Illyria, and Thrace

According to Strabo (App. #18),³⁴ one of the tribes that inhabited the area of Dardania (largely the present-day Karst plateau of Kosovo) in southern Illyria on the border with Peonia, Macedonia, Thrace and Mysia identified the ÎÎ±Î»á½±Î²ÏÎ¹Î¿Î¹, who lived in an ancient city. The Dardans, who were connected to the Adriatic Sea by the river Drilon (Drin), were described as nomads arranged in mud huts. However, they loved music, and were constantly devoted to it with flutes and stringed instruments.³⁵ Athenaeus³⁶ and Julius Pollux³⁷ report a Thracian dance called ÎºÎ¿Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¹ÏÎ¼á½¹Ï (mss. ÎºÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ï-). The song that accompanied it was named Îºá½¹Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿Ï.³⁸ It was a violent dance, probably involving weapons, as with the Thracians described by Xenophon in the Anabasis.³⁹ We do not know, however, whether the âcolabrismoâ was connected with the semantic sphere of the names formed by Kalabr-/ur-, as we admit them to be. On the other hand, Mount Kalauros (ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»Ïá¿³ á½ÏÎµÎ¹) should lead back to eastern Macedonia inhabited by Thracian Migdons. As the Scholiast asserts in the commentary on Iliad 13. 459, it was situated near the river Anthemos and Mount Athos. Anchises, who had come on the shoulders of Aeneas after the destruction of Troy, would die here (App. #31).⁴⁰ Given the geographical location, we cannot rule out the possibility that Mount Kalauros is reminescent of the present-day Mount Hortiatis, from which springs the river Chabrias, known cartographically in the 17th centuryÂ C.E. as Cillabro. However, it seems more likely thet the site corresponds to Mount Katsika and the karst area of the Petralona Caves southeast of Thessaloniki on the Chalkidiki peninsula.⁴¹

4 An Etruscan Inscription from Volsinii, Orvieto

An Etruscan inscription from the city of Volsinii (Orvieto), dated to the end of the 6th centuryÂ B.C.E. (FigureÂ 10), refers to the name of an aristocrat who was the owner of a chamber tomb in the CrocÎ¹fisso del Tufo cemetery with the following expression: âI am the urn of [A]ranÎ¸ia Kalaprenasâ.⁴² The genitive Kalaprenas, which presupposes a nominative *Kalapre as a prename or appellative, probably corresponds to the Latin word Calaber or Calabrus.⁴³ If this interpretation is correct, we would have an important clue to the spread of the ethnic name Calabri in the West since the Archaic period, similar to that of the Latins (Latine, Latinie, Latinna, LatiÎ¸e), Rutuli (Rutelna) and Falisci (Feluske), long before the choronym ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± was used as an equivalent to Messapia in the 3rd centuryÂ B.C.E..⁴⁴

FigureÂ 10

The inscription from Volsinii, Orvieto, Necropoli di Crocefisso del Tufo. The name of the tombâs owner is [A]ranÎ¸ia Kalaprenas

Across all the Etruscan Inscriptions throughout Italy, 86: 208, fig.Â 19, http://www.etruscan-rune.com

5 Kalauria Nymph and Ganges River in India

According to De Fluviis (App. #29) by Pseudo-Plutarch (2ndâ3rd centuryÂ C.E.), the Ganges River in India was the son of Indus and a nymph named Kalauria (ÏÎ¹Ï ÎÎ±Î»Î±ÏÏá½·Î± Î½á½»Î¼ÏÎ·).⁴⁵ Being distraught because he had unknowingly committed incest with his mother in a drunken state, young Ganges, learning the truth from his nurse, threw himself into the floods of a river. This watercourse, hitherto called Î§Î»Î¹Î±Ïá½¹Î½, received from that moment the solemn name of Ganges (Skr. GangÃ¢). The term Î§Î»Î¹Î±Ïá½¹Ï has the adjectival meaning of âhot, lukewarmâ in the Greek language. The association in Greek culture between ÎÎ±Î»Î±ÏÏá½·Î± and the native name of Ganges (Î§Î»Î¹Î±Ïá½¹Ï) attests that ÎÎ±Î»Î±ÏÏá½·Î± was a hydronym. In particular, it is associated with spring water, for the beautiful maiden mother of Ganges appears in the guise of Î½á½»Î¼ÏÎ·, the river deity par excellence. In this context, we cannot exclude a connection in Greek mythology with the cult of Poseidon, the God of the Sea and all waters, who was worshipped as Kalauros on the island of Kalauria in the Saronic Gulf in the northeastern Peloponnese.⁴⁶ Finally, a possible reference to the term Colar or Colara was found in the lore of Pseudo-Plutarch (App. #29). This name proposed for ancient India, although not attested, could be literary evidence for the Indian tribe ÎÎ±Î»Î»Î±Ïá½·Î±Ï mentioned by Herodotus⁴⁷ and already known to Hecataeus of Miletus.⁴⁸

6 Kalauria Site near Syracuse in Sicily

Dealing with the war in Sicily between the Corinthian general Timoleon and Icetas, the tyrant of Leontini, for control of Syracuse in 339/8â¯B.C.E., Plutarch (App. # 28) reports that the decisive battle took place near ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»ÏÎ¹Î± (in the mss. also ÎÎ±Î»Î±Ïá½·Î± and ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î±).⁴⁹ The passage reads as follows:

And after this, when Timoleon was on an expedition to Calauria (Îµá¼°Ï ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»ÏÎ¹Î±Î½ ÏÏÏÎ±ÏÎµá½»ÏÎ±Î½ÏÎ¿Ï), Hicetas burst into the territory of Syracuse, took much booty, wrought much wanton havoc, and was marching off past Calauria itself (ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»ÏÎ¹Î±Î½), despising Timoleon, who had but few soldiers. But Timoleon suffered him to pass on, and then pursued him with cavalry and light-armed troops. When Hicetas was aware of this, he crossed the river Damurias, and halted on the farther bank to defend himself.⁵⁰

The location of ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»ÏÎ¹Î± has not yet been conclusively determined. The most probable hypothesis concerns the place mentioned by Titus Livius as âturrim [â¦] Galeagramâ⁵¹ and known to ancient historians.⁵² The area was near the portum Trogilorum, the creek of the Proasterion, a trading post for the needs of the sailors.⁵³

We do not know whether this place corresponds to the bay of Santa Panagia, a district northwest of Syracuse, or, on the southeastern side, to the âpromontory of the caveâ of the Mazzarona coast.⁵⁴ However, both places belong to a coastal area with many bays or karst caves even flooded.⁵⁵ On the other hand, the river Damurias commonly recalls the river Mulinello, one of the waterways that flow into the Megarese Port of Augusta.⁵⁶

FigureÂ 11

Map of ancient Syracuse

after Philipp ClÃ¼ver, 17th centuryÂ C.E. (Graevius 1704â1725)

7 A Spurious Epigraph concerning the Lokroi Kalabroi

An inscription from the old castle of Grotteria near Locri, in present-day Calabria, contains a dedication of the Lokroi Kalabroi to Athena Parthenos in seven lines: âThe Locrenses Calabri consecrate this castle to the Sacrosanct goddess Athena Parthenos, who springs from the head of the Great Zeusâ (App. # 33). The epigraph, included in a group of seven inscriptions reported by P.Â ScarfÃ², a Basilian monk, and collected by Ludovico Antonio Muratori (1740), seems to be false.⁵⁷ However, those who made may have been inspired by the Classical tradition of Vergilius, who in the Aeneid locates the âSallentinos [â¦] camposâ, occupied by the Cretan king Idomeneus, between the towns of Locris and Petelia.⁵⁸ According to Varro,⁵⁹ the hero sailed from Crete to Illyria and then to Locris with a group of Locrian refugees who became his allies on the sea. The king also emerged as the mythical founder of Castrum Minervae in the Salentine Peninsula, ancient Kalabria. The fortress appeared as the seat of a temple of Athena⁶⁰ and as the first access of Aeneas to Italy.⁶¹

Cf. Alessio (1935) 133â151; Id. (1936) 165â189; Bertoldi (1931) 161; Ribezzo (1933) 210 n.Â 1; Battisti (1934) 182; Deroy (1962) 1â13; Perono Cacciafoco (2008) 13â24; Id. (2015b) 35â50. See infra Chap.Â V.

A concise but informative overview of the studies is provided by Zancani Montuoro (1974) 70â80.

Cf. Lepore, Mele (1983) 882. The manuscripts include ms. Riccardianus gr. 29, 15th century R: Îá½±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿Ï; ms. Laurentianus 56, 11, yr.Â 1485, F and ms. Parisinus gr. 1410, yr.Â 1490, P: Îá½±Î»Î±ÏÏÎ¿Ï; ms. Marcianus gr. 413, ca.Â 1450, V: Îá½±Î»Î±ÏÎ²ÏÎ¿Ï.

Paus. Graec. Descr. 6. 6. 11. See Jones, Ormerod (1918); Fontenrose (1974) 119. Cf. Mele (1983) 848â888; Visentin (1992); Currie (2003) 85â102.

Lepore, Mele (1983) 882: âLa lezione Îá½±Î»Î±ÏÎ²ÏÎ¿Ï, invece, nasce dalla manifesta giustapposizione del valore fonico e di quello grafico della Ïâ. Cf. Mazzarino (1939) 148; Zancani Montuoro (1974) 70â80. Contra Nenci (1982) 1â2.

Allen (1968) 28â29; Lejeune (1987) 55; 231; Horroks (1997) 111â112; 122â123; 165â167; 170â171; Buth (2008a) 4; Id. (2008b) 217â230.

Eusth. Ad Od. 24. 304.

Giannelli (1924) 260â277; Zancani Montuoro (1974) 70â80; Lepore, Mele (1983) 882â883. In the Scholia to Lycophron (852â854), the city of Temesa appears as Ïá½¹Î»Î¹Ï ÎÎ±Î»Î±ÏÏá½·Ï and is associated with Iapigia as ÎÎ±Î»Î±ÏÏá½¶Î±, inhabited by barbarians ÎÎ±Î»Î±ÏÏÎ¿á½·. Thus, the river Îá½±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿Ï or Îá½±Î»Î±ÏÏÎ¿Ï, mentioned by Pausanias, was sometimes identified with the present-day river Galeso near Taranto (Maas 1907: 18â53) or, according to Strabo (7. 5. 7.), associated with the Illyrian tribe of the ÎÎ±Î»á½±Î²ÏÎ¹Î¿Î¹ in Dardania (Krahe 1943: 65; Id. 1939: 78).

PY An. 192 l.Â 8; PY Jn. 750 l.Â 7.

Syll.³ 359, 1â2.

Ps.-Skyl. 52.

Dem. 49. 13.

St. Byz. 388.

St. Byz. 598. See Ventris, Chadwick (1956) 419. Cf. Gallavotti, Sacconi (1961) 15; 86; Capovilla (1961); Zancani Montuoro (1974) 70â80; Nakassis (2013), 277 n.Â 342.

Hdt. 3. 59. 1.

St. Byz. 388: âÎ½Î·Ïá½·Î´Î¹Î¿Î½ ÏÏá½¸Ï Ïá¿ ÎÏá½µÏá¿â.

Ps.-Skyl. 52.

Dem. 49.

Paus. 2. 32; Eur. Hip. 1126.

Dion. Perieg. Orb. 499.

Fest. Avien. Desc. Orb. Ter. 671.

Pharaklas (1972); Figueira (2004) n.Â 360. Cf. Encyclop. Britain. (https://www.britannica.com/place/Poros). See Fest. Avien. Descr. Orb. Ter. 671: âEt procera caput turgescunt pulchra Cythera; / Eminet hic etiam saxosa Calauria juxtaâ. In the manuscripts of Dionysius Periegetas we also find ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± and ÎÎ±Î»á½±Î²ÏÎµÎ¹Î± forms. See Wide, Kjelberg (1895) 267â326; Welter (1941); Callmer (1953) 208â223; Stucchi (1961) 295â296; Kirsten, Kraiker (1967) I. 307â308; IIÂ 879.

Strab. 8. 6. 14.

Wide, Kjellberg (1895) 267â326; Callmer (1953) 208â223; Stucchi (1961); Bringmann, Steuben (1995) 95â97; Hansen (1971) 115â291; Schumacher (1993); Welter (1941) 43â45; Coulton (1976) 242â243; Papadopoulos et al. (2006) 75.

St. Byz. 388; 598.

Pind. Pyth. 4. 44â45; Hdt. 4. 145.

Callim. fr.Â 221; Paus. 10. 5. 6; Strab. 8. 6. 14. See Unger (1877) 34â40; Wide (1893) 40â45; Waser (1884â1937) 5; Halliday (1928) 106; Vian (1944) 97â117; Schumacher (1993) 51â69.

Strab. 8. 6. 14.

Plut. Dem. 29â30.

Strab. 8. 6. 14.

Arist. fr.Â 8. 44. 597.

Od. 3. 167â179.

Thuc. 3. 3. 5. See Curtius (1876) 385â392; Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (1896) 158â170; Schumacher (1993) 51â69.

Strab. 7. 5. 7.

Zancani Montuoro (1974) 70â80. Cf. Latham (1859) II. 34; Kiepert (1878) 275 (245), n.Â 2 and 452 (390); BÃ©rard (1957) 432; Krahe (1925) 103; 112; Pugliese Carratelli (1971) 403â408. For karst phenomena in Kosovo, see Stuhlberger (2001); Onac, Constantin (2004) 682; Avdullahi, Fejza, Syla (2008) 51â56; Bajraktari (2012) 47; Avdullahi, Serjani, Fejza, Tmava (2013) 7â15.

Athen. 14. 27 Kaibel.

Jul. Poll. 4. 100. 6.

Athen. 15. 53. 20; Demetr. Sceps. ap. eund. 15. 53. 15.

Xen. Anab. 6. 1. 5.

Schol. in Iliad, Heyne, 13. 459. 4. See Zancani Montuoro (1974) 80: âLâidentificazione di questo [fiume] Ã¨, tuttavia, dubbia: si potrebbe pensare al fiume omonimo, menzionato da Apollod. II, 5, 10 nella favolosa isola oceanica di á¼Ïá½»Î¸ÎµÎ¹Î±, ma in realtÃ sembra che sia da riferire piuttosto alla regione di questo nome in Macedonia, dovâÃ¨ ricordata la vecchia cittÃ (Hdt. V, 94; Demosth. VIÂ 20), forse a NâE di Salonicco, e la Î»á½·Î¼Î½Î· (Etym. M. s.v.) entrambe dello stesso nome [Kiepert 1878: 105, 313; Danoff 1964: 372]â.

Manoledakis (2015) 133â134; Poulianos (2013) 88.

CIEÂ 4940.

Schulze (1904) 524; 575; Zancani Montuoro (1974) 80; Cristofani (1974); 313; De Simone (1978) 387; Id. (1990) 78; Morandi Tarabella (2004) 261.

Hsch. 380. 1. fr.Â 20. See Colonna (2004) 76; Id. (2013) 7â22; Poccetti (2011) 168.

Ps.-Plut. De Fluv. 4. 1. 2.

Delattre (2011) 92â93 and n.Â 2; Beekes (2010) 1637.

Hdt. 3. 38; 4. 44.

Hecat. FGrHist I FÂ 298. Cf. Oppert (1893) 124â128.

Plut. Timol. 31. 2.

Perrin 1918. Cf. Zanusso (2017), 2234â2235.

Liv. 25. 23.

Polyb. 8. 3; Plut. Marc. 15.

Thuc. 99. 1; Sil. It. 14. 259. See Strazzulla (1899) 162.

DrÃ¶gemÃ¼ller (2018 [1969]) 81â90; 140â150.

Scicchitano, Monaco (2006) 187â194.

Orsi (1902) 411â434: âKalaurÃ¬a, sulla cui precisa ubicazione, malgrado i tentativi fatti, nulla di preciso ancora ne consta. Preferisco dunque pensare a qualche grossa fattoria o tenuta nel corso del Molinello (Damyrias)â.

Muratori (1740) 1817; Kaibel (1890) Falsae, n.Â 46; Giannelli (1924) 244â246.

Verg. Aen. 3. 399â402.

Var. Rer. Hum. 3.

Strab. 10. 4.

Dion. Hal. 1. 51; Verg. Aen. 3. 520â531.

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The Historical Landscape of Ancient KalabrÃa

Balkan and Aegean Linguistic Influences

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ChapterÂ 2 Corresponding Denominations in Antiquity

1 The Kalabros River on an Ancient Temesa Painting

FigureÂ 8

FigureÂ 9

2 The Island of Kalauria and the Cult of Poseidon

3 Balkan Area between Dardania, Illyria, and Thrace

4 An Etruscan Inscription from Volsinii, Orvieto

FigureÂ 10

5 Kalauria Nymph and Ganges River in India

6 Kalauria Site near Syracuse in Sicily

FigureÂ 11

7 A Spurious Epigraph concerning the Lokroi Kalabroi

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Balkan and Aegean Linguistic Influences

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