The Root *Kar-/ *Kal- and the Toponymic Appellative Bria/ Uria

Francesco Lopez

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ChapterÂ 5 The Root **Kar*-/ **Kal- and the Toponymic Appellative Bria/ Uria*

In: The Historical Landscape of Ancient KalabrÃa

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Francesco Lopez

Francesco Lopez
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Pages:: 58â76

DOI:: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004711822_007

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1 KalabroÃ as the âInhabitants of the Rocksâ

The etymology of the ethnonym ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½· most widely accepted by glottologists also involves that of the ÎÎ±Î»á½±Î²ÏÎ¹Î¿Î¹, an Illyrian tribe from Dardania (App. #26).¹ It states that the name, which refers to ancient Messapia (App. #11 and 14)² or Iapygia (App. #3),³ consists of two parts, like that of CantÄbri in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Thus, the first part takes up the IE or possibly pre-IE theme *cala/ *gala âstone, rockâ but also ârock, fortressâ. The second part, corresponding to the morphological identity of (Cala)brÄ« and (Canta)brÄ«, consists of the stem *bru-/ *blu- âto growâ, which appears as a relic in the Ancient Greek verb Î²Ïá½»Ï âto swellâ. The ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½·, who settled in the central-northern and Adriatic district of the Salentine Peninsula while the Sallentini inhabited the marshy plains on the Ionian side,⁴ would in this sense, following the example of the CantÄbri in Spain, denote the âinhabitants of the rocksâ. Given the natural environment of the places, it is therefore assumed that the ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½· must have been the inhabitants of the mountainous area of the Salentine Peninsula, which can be identified with the area of the Murge and the Serre Salentine.⁵ The form *cala/gala is considered a variant of the IE or possibly pre-IE base *kar[r]a (< *kar-/ *kal-), associated with the notions of ârockâ and âstoneâ, involved in the formation of several place names. The discrepancy would be caused by fluctuating liquid consonants, with the transformation or attenuation /r/ ~ /l/.⁶ The term ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½·, which is known as a choronym from the 3rd centuryÂ B.C.E. (App. #11),⁷ appeared to the ancient historians as a non-Greek word. Thus, Polybius counted the ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½· among the foreign ethnic groups (Î²Î±ÏÎ²á½±ÏÏÎ½) of Italy, who lived mainly by pastoralism (App. #16).⁸ Instead, Strabo (App. #23) explicitly acknowledged the indigenous origin of their ethnonym.⁹ Hesychiusâ Lexicon also contains the gloss ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½¹ÏÎ Î²á½±ÏÎ²Î±ÏÎ¿Ï, which probably recalls the Polybiusâ comment (App. #16).¹⁰ On a linguistic level, however, the debate on whether the *kar-/ *kal- root belongs to the Mediterranean-Aegean substratum is still ongoing.¹¹ Finally to explain the second part of the terms ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± and ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½·, the stem *bru-/ *blu- âto growâ has been associated with the Ancient Greek verb Î²Ïá½»Ï, âto swellâ. The etymology of this word, possibly related to the Latin noun frutex âshrubâ, is unclear.¹²

2 The Complexity of the Pre-Hellenic **Kala* Toponymic Base

Linguists have observed the complex semantic layering of the toponymic base *kala. Overall, it occurs in ancient Greece and Western contexts and derives from the IE or possibly pre-IE *kar-/ *kal- root.¹³ If we examine historical antiquity, we can trace two *kala paths in the pre-Hellenic period, related but temporally distinct. The first, as a variant of *kar(r)a âstoneâ, with transformation or attenuation /r/ ~ /l/, originally meant âsplinter, piece, stone block, stoneâ (IEWÂ 523â524; 531â532). The second, also meaning ârockâ, expresses the more specific notion of âfissure, crack, bend, inlet, estuary, mine, cave, recessed, open or jagged placeâ (IEWÂ 545â546, EIECÂ 431, LIVÂ 350).¹⁴ In this way, we can hypothesise a pre-IE origin for both terms, with a later adaptation of them to the IE phonetic system in the possible transition between pre-IE and IE, after linguistic contact.¹⁵

The notion of *kala as âstoneâ in Ancient Greek is preserved in several words: Ïá½±Î»Î¹Î¾ âsmall stoneâ; ÎºÎ»á¾¶ÏÎ¿Ï and ÏÎ»Î±Ïá½¹Î½ âsmall rockâ; ÎºÎ±Î»ÏÎ´á½·Î»Î± ârow of boulders for crossing a watercourseâ; Îºá½±ÎºÎ±Î»Î± âwall of large stonesâ; Îºá½±ÏÎ»Î·Î¾ and Îºá½¹ÏÎ»Î±Î¾ âpebbleâ. Among the place names, we find Îá½±Î»ÏÎ´Î½Î±, the fortress of Thebes, or the name of some small rocky islands in the Aegean.¹⁶ In the West, a number of lexical groups appear a) Celtic *calyo-, *calya, and *calyavo, from which cail, âstoneâ; b) North-West Celtic *gallos, Irl. gal âstoneâ; c) the Southern group *calata, Prov. calada, calado, âpavÃ©â; group *calm (Medieval Lat. calmis), âstony groundâ; d) Alpine group *cala, Fr.-Prov. chalet, âalp or mountain gathering placeâ, and perhaps the Iberian toponym Calagurris; e) group *clappa âpiece of stoneâ, Prov. clap âstoneâ; f) Etruscan and Latin group calx âstone of passage or boundaryâ, calculus âpebbleâ, and glÄrea âgravelâ; g) Canarian groups with galga âstoneâ and the toponyms Galga, Galgas, Galguen, Gala, and Galeras.¹⁷

The root *kar- could also be at the origin of the genesis of the IE stem/ proto-form *kartu- that was in its turn at the origin of the Ancient Greek adjective ÎºÏÎ±Ïá½»Ï âstrongâ and verb ÎºÎ±ÏÏá½»Î½Ï (epic form)/ ÎºÏÎ±Ïá½»Î½Ï âto strengthenâ, and of the Gothic hardus âhardâ (Lat. ardÅus). The same root/ proto-form *kartu- and the derived forms share the same basic/ original meaning, âhardâ. The âhardnessâ (not necessarily ânon-breakable hardnessâ) implied by this âsemantic clusterâ is understood as a physical property (for example, âthe hardness of the stoneâ).¹⁸ The pre-Hellenic base *kala in the sense of âcleft, crack, bend, inlet, estuary, mine, cave, sunken, open or fissured placeâ is well preserved in Ancient Greek. It is involved in the naming of coastal bays (gulfs, inlets, estuaries), especially in maritime language. Among the most obvious forms are the terms: ÎºÎ±Î»Î±ÏÏÏÎ³á½± and Îºá½±Î»Î¹ÎºÎ¿Î½ âcanal, brookâ; Î³á½±Î»Î±Ï âcultivated landâ (Cypriot.); ÎºÎ±Î»Î±Ïá¿Î½ÎµÏ âductâ (Lacon.), Îºá½±Î»Î±Î¼Î¿Ï âcaneâ; Î³á½±Î»Î· âcovered gallery, weaselâs denâ; ÎºÎ±Î»Î¹á½±, âhut, cavity, shelter, cave, templeâ, ÎºÎ±Î»Î¹á½¹Ï, âsmall house, hut, prisonâ and ÎºÎ±Î»á½»Î²Î·, âhut, tentâ; Î³Î±Î»á½µÎ½Î·, âquiet corner of the sea within a gulf or an estuaryâ;¹⁹ Î³Î»á½±ÏÏ ÏÎµÏÏá¿ÎµÎ½, ârocky cavityâ of wild animals;²⁰ Î³Î»Î±ÏÏÏá½¹Ï âhollow, hollowed out, deepâ, an epithet often associated in Homeric poems with a bay, a cave, and an overhang. Among the place names we find the following: Îá½±Î»ÏÎ·, a natural port of Bithynia protected by a high rocky promontory;²¹ ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Î±(Î½)Ïá½·Î±, from the pre-Greek *kalapa, a seaport of Lycia near Sidyma;²² Îá½±Î»Î·Ï but also Îá½±Î»Î»Î·Ï and Îá½±Î»Î·Î¾, a harbour of Bithynia;²³ ÎÎµÎ»á½³Î½Î´ÎµÏÎ¹Ï, the name of two ports dug into the rocky coast, one near Troizen²⁴ and the other in Cilicia.²⁵ According to Louis Deroy (1962: 7), the choronym ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± could also belong to this last notion of âinletâ or âbayâ to designate the Gulf of Tarentum, bordered by Cape Iapygia on the Salentine Peninsula.²⁶ In the West, the base *kala occurs frequently. For example, we find the following terms: Îá½±Î»Ïá¿ Î¤Î±ÏÏÎ·ÏÏá½·Î´Î±²⁷ or Î³Î±Î»á¿ Î¤Î±ÏÏÎ·Ïá½·Î±,²⁸ in the river delta of the Guadalquivir on the Iberian Atlantic coast, to denote the estuary near the city of Tartessus; Mount Îá½±Î»ÏÎ· in the Gibraltar Strait,²⁹ bordering the Algeciras Bay; the estuary of the river Duero near Cales civitas,³⁰ from which Portus Cale and the present name of Portugal derive; the estuary of the river Gironde, associated with the city of Bordeaux, Gr. ÎÎ¿ÏÏÎ´á½·Î³Î±Î»Î±, Lat. Burdegala;³¹ the Gallic region north of the Seine mouth whose inhabitants were called CalÄtes or CalÄti.³²

3 The Root **Kar*-/ **Kal*- as âStoneâ and âWater-Carved Stoneâ

Traces of the IE or possibly pre-IE root *kar- (> *kar[r]a) âstone, rockâ, have been found in numerous European pre-historic hydronyms and toponyms such as Harund (Scandinavia); Carron, Cart Water, Cary (Great Britain); Carad (Ireland); Harste (Germany); Chiers (Belgium); Charentonne, Cher, Charante (France); CÃ¡ralis/Cagliari, Carusai, Carrara (Italy); Carranzo, Carranza, Carisa, CarantÃ³ (Spain). In the case of water bodies, *kar would have the meaning of âstony riverâ or âriver flowing through a pebbly shore/ gravel bedâ. This phenomenon, commonly known as Old European hydronymy, includes names derived from roots expressing a property or characteristic of water streams, such as *tar- âstrongâ, and *ais- ârapidâ. It essentially covers much of Central and Western Europe.³³ The close relationship between the stem *kar- (> *kar[r]a) and European hydronymy, due to the rootâs meaning as âstoneâ or âwater-carved stoneâ, allows us to connect further the two pre-Hellenic forms *kala examined earlier.³⁴ This aspect becomes even more significant when we consider that *kala is often repeated in the sense of âcrackâ to recall the erosion of the stone caused by water. In the maritime language used from Sicily to Sardinia and Catalonia, the base *kala served to designate the creeks and coves, the recesses of the rocky coast where boats could seek shelter from the wind and bad weather (FEW s.v. *cala). The *kar- root, in its variant *kal-, can also be recognised in the Italian word calanco, whose etymology is apparently uncertain. Defined as a narrow and deep erosionâs furrow with many ramifications, limited by thin ridges, generally devoid of vegetation, it is a phenomenon from predominantly clay soils, produced by runoff and washing out waters. The word calanco commonly derives from the term defined as Mediterranean (i.e. pre-Indo-European) cala (< *kal- ~ *kar-), merged with the Mediterranean Ligurian suffix -anco.³⁵ The geographical area called Carso in north-eastern Italy (Eastern Alps) also gets its name from this *kar- root expressed through a form *carsa ârock, stoneâ and corresponding to the same âsemantic fieldâ. Moreover, the karst rock, similar to the calancoâs stone, is involved in a solution process operated by water, that determines specific forms of surface and subterranean erosion. The Latin noun calx and the adjective calcarius derived from it may also go back to the *kal- root. The exact origin can be considered for the Ancient Greek Ïá½±Î»Î¹Î¾, âstone that dissolves in water, limeâ. Indeed, limestone is a sedimentary rock consisting mainly of calcium carbonate (calcite) with a certain degree of permeability.³⁶ Finally, the notion of âcave, mineâ is no less significant: Prov. and Tusc. calaverna, Gasc. calur, caluro âunderground or rocky refugeâ, Lat. galÄna, âargentiferous leadâ, hence the Iber. *gala, âmineâ. The same applies to soil erosion, using terms meaning âchannel, trenchâ, as Prov. cala, It. calla, or âcarved pathâ, Etrus. callis, It. calle.³⁷

4 The Pre-Hellenic Toponymic Appellative Bria/ Uria

The second part of the choronym ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± (App. #11)³⁸ was considered to derive from the IE or possibly Pre-IE root *bru-/ *blu- âto growâ, which appears as a relic in the Ancient Greek verb Î²Ïá½»Ï, âto sproutâ.³⁹ The Byzantine historian Johannes Zonaras (12th centuryÂ C.E.) referred to the same notion when he interpreted the Thracian toponym ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½»Î· (App. #32) in the folk etymological meaning of âGood Springsâ (= ÎºÎ±Î»Î±á½¶ Î²Ïá½»ÏÎµÎ¹Ï).⁴⁰ Nevertheless, the issue is more complex and deserves to be explored in depth.⁴¹

The earliest mention of the Thracian fortress of ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½»Î· is found in the Chronicon Paschale, written in the first half of the 7th centuryÂ C.E. The Codex Vaticanus Gr. 1941, however, retains the form ÎÎ±Î»Î±uÏá½·Î±, a term modified by modern scholars to ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î±.⁴² The context was that of the âNika Revoltâ, which broke out against emperor Justinian in January 532â¯C.E..⁴³ The appellative morpheme Î²Ïá½·Î± occurs, usually as a second element, in several Thracian and Phrygian place names (14 or 17), such as Alai-bria, Asti-bria, Bolba-bria, Bria, Kom-breia, Limno-bria, Mene-bria, Mesem-bria, Selym-bria, and Som-bria.⁴⁴ Specifically, the city of Î£Î·Î»ÏÎ¼Î²Ïá½·Î±,⁴⁵ which corresponds to modern Silivri, stood not far from the present-day area of YolÃ§ati or Fener/AkÃ¶ren villages, which seems to be the probable seat of the ÏÏÏá½·Î¿Î½ ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½»Î·Î½ mentioned by Zonaras.⁴⁶ Thus, the ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± (< ÎÎ±Î»Î±uÏá½·Î±) variant of the Chronicon Paschale, since it makes a âsystemâ with the other place names composed in -bria, and especially with that of the neighbouring Î£Î·Î»ÏÎ¼Î²Ïá½·Î±, was probably the original form as well as the oldest known so far. Moreover, the semivocalic pronunciation of /Ï/ and the aspirated or fricative sound of /Î²/ phonetically produce the same sound, which is also evident in manuscript tradition.⁴⁷ The Thracian place names Beroea, Brea, Briula, and Bria in Phrygia belong to the same semantic field.⁴⁸ Strabo notes that in his time, the noun Î²Ïá½·Î± had the meaning of âcityâ in the Thracian language.⁴⁹ Hesychius also retains the gloss Î²Ïá½·Î±Î½Î Ïá½´Î½ á¼Ïâá¼Î³ÏÎ¿á¿Ï Îºá½½Î¼Î·Î½.⁵⁰ A possible connection could be with ToA ri, ToB riye âcity, townâ, Skr. vrti- âgarden, fenceâ, Avest. var âcastle, fortress, towerâ, Anc. Bulg. (Ð·Ð°)Ð²ÑÐµÑÐ¸-(za)vreti âcloseâ, and Etr. spur âcityâ.⁵¹

FigureÂ 23

The Map of the main Thracian terms indicating âsettlementâ

after Serafimov (2007) 134â154 and Map. 2

The toponymic morpheme Î²Ïá½·Î± âcity, country, regionâ seems to characterise, alone or as a second element, a wide Anatolian-Balkan linguistic area extending from Phrygia through Thrace to Moesia and Macedonia (FigureÂ 23).⁵² Connected to the IE *wriyÄ or PIE *wriÄ terms, the morpheme has been interpreted in many ways. The first hypothesis associates it with the IE root *wer- âto close, coverâ (IEWÂ 1152; 1162: uÌ¯er-³),⁵³ but also âto protectâ.⁵⁴ In this sense, it seemed to refer to an âinhabited territoryâ, a âcityâ, a âregionâ, as a place delimited by boundaries and able to provide protection.⁵⁵ On a more structural level, studies, therefore, focused on the PIE word *wriÄ, âhigh cityâ, linked to the IE root *war- (IEWÂ 1152: uÌ¯er-²) or pre-IE *b-r-/ *p-r-, which is widely used in the Mediterranean in the sense of âelevation, heightâ (degree-zero *br-i-a), Myc. ri-jo âpromontoryâ, Gr. á¿¥á½·Î¿Î½.⁵⁶ In this case, the term Î²Ïá½·Î± denotes the same kind of high and fortified settlement as in Germanic -burg Celtic -briga, Ancient Greek -polis and Sanskrit -pur.⁵⁷ As a variant associated with *b-r-, the stem *or-/ *ur- ~ *ol-/ *ul- âvery large, enormous, highâ, with vowel apophony and oscillation between liquid consonants, has attracted as much attention from scholars. The root comprises a branching system of isoglosses extending beyond Thrace to a vast Mediterranean area from Iberia to Asia Minor.⁵⁸ This phenomenon has sometimes led to the hypothesis that there are well-defined âUR language groupsâ.⁵⁹

The notion of âland, city, strongholdâ would explain the Iapygian-Messapian form -yrion, which marks many toponyms on the Salentine Peninsula, such as Mand-yrion or Manduria, Sat-yrion or Saturo, but also the town of âÎ¥Ïá½·Î·Ï, Lat. Uria (modern Oria, between Brindisi and Taranto, or Vereto on the coast near Cape S.Â Maria di Leuca).⁶⁰ The settlement âÎ¥Ïá½·Î·Ï was founded, as Herodotus claims, by a group of Cretan castaways who landed in Iapygia and then became âMessapians of Iapygiaâ three generations before the Trojan War (App. #5).⁶¹ In the sense of âterritoryâ as a second element, the form -yrion also occurs on the eastern side of the Adriatic, in Dalmatia-Illyria, referring to the place name Tragurium, Gr. Î¤ÏÎ±Î³Î¿á½»ÏÎ¹Î¿Î½ or Î¤ÏÎ±Î³á½»ÏÎ¹Î¿Î½.⁶² Moreover, the Greek word á¿¥á½·Î¿Î½, with an initial digamma (F-), Mycenaean ri-jo TN, âpromontoryâ, ârocky peakâ, is connected with -yrion. In this case, the name âÎ¥Ïá½·Î·Ï for Vereto would have not only the general meaning of âland, city, rockâ but also the more specific one of âpromontoryâ, from the root *wer- (IEWÂ 1152: uÌ¯er-²) âhighâ, PIE *wriyo. Therefore, the same root *wer- as âelevated placeâ would appear at the origin of both the Iapygian-Messapian form -yrion and the Ancient Greek noun *Fá¿¥á½·Î¿Î½ as well as the Thracian-Phrygian appellative Î²Ïá½·Î± (= Ïá½¹Î»Î¹Ï, ÏÎµá¿ÏÎ¿Ï).⁶³ The Messapian Oria town (Lat. Uria, Gr. âÎ¥Ïá½·Î±, Îá½Ïá½·Î±, Mess. Orra, seen only on the coins), as well as Uria on the Gargano Peninsula, would thus correspond perfectly to the Phrygian Bria and the Thracian Brea. The close connection with the toponymic element Î²Ïá½·Î± would lead to admit the existence of an isogloss between the Messapian world and the Thracian-Phrygian world. This hypothesis, although the accents between the two forms *Ã¹ria and *urÃ¬a are different, seems nevertheless to be confirmed by the now accepted view of Î²Ïá½·Î± as equivalent to PIE *wriÄ, âelevated cityâ, ToA ri, ToB riye âcityâ (<* uÌ¯riiÌ¯Ä).⁶⁴ Considering the parallelism of ÎÎµÏÏÎ±Ïá½·Î± and ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± (as early as the 3rd centuryÂ B.C.E. [App. #11]⁶⁵) and the remarkable linguistic similarities between the Salento peninsula and the Balkans that emerge from the inscriptions,⁶⁶ the connection between the ethnonym ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½· and the Dardanian ÎÎ±Î»á½±Î²ÏÎ¹Î¿Î¹ noted by Strabo (App. #26)⁶⁷ gains even more relevance. Thus, the parallelism between ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± and the Thracian toponym ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î± (< ÎÎ±Î»Î±uÏá½·Î±) of the Chronicon Paschale (7th centuryÂ C.E.) or ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½»Î· in Zonaras (12th centuryÂ C.E.), who interprets it as âGood Springsâ (= ÎºÎ±Î»Î±á½¶ Î²Ïá½»ÏÎµÎ¹Ï [App. #32]), becomes equally significant. The same phenomenon would occur in eastern Macedonia inhabited by the Thracians Migdons, concerning Mount Kalauros (ÎÎ±Î»Î±á½»Ïá¿³ á½ÏÎµÎ¹) near Mount Athos on the Chalkidiki peninsula, where Anchises, who arrived with Aeneas after the destruction of Troy, is said to have died (App. #31).⁶⁸

FigureÂ 24

Indo-European world map

Mallory, Adams 2006: 8 Map 1.1

FigureÂ 25

Major known non-Indo-European groups in Europe and western Asia

Mallory, Adams 2006: 10 Map 1.3

Scholars also focused on the root *or-/ *ur- ~ *ol-/ *ul- âvery large, enormous, highâ, which has a similar meaning to the stem IE *wer- or pre-IE *b-r-/ *p-r- âelevation, heightâ, although it is synchronically different. This base is not only present as a second element, like -bria, in several Thracian place names (e.g. Al-oros, Az-oros, El-oros, Gaz-oros, Thest-oros, Milk-oros, Tarp-oron, Clev-ora, and Cap-ora), but also appears at the centre of an extensive isoglossic system throughout the Mediterranean from Iberia to Asia Minor.⁶⁹ The toponym Oria (Lat. Uria, Gr. âÎ¥Ïá½·Î±, Îá½Ïá½·Î±), referring to ancient Apulia, has been interpreted as a relic of the Central area substratum fossilised in the âBalkan peripheryâ (cf. Dacorumen oras âcityâ). It probably comprised Italy during the pre-historic phase of the Anatolian urban civilisation movement towards the Balkans and the West.⁷⁰ The notion of âcityâ is related to Oria and shows up in the Basque uri âcityâ, uri-a âthe cityâ, but also in the Iberian-Euskara huri and the Sumerian-Anatolian uru or ur, Hebrew ir. In this way, a series of place names emerges that are almost unanimously attributed to the same linguistic field in the western and eastern Mediterranean. The group includes: âÎ¥Ïá½·Î·,⁷¹ a city on the banks of the Euritus on the border between Euboea and Boeotia; âÎ¥Ïá½·Î·, another name of Seleucia in Cilicia;⁷² âÎ¥Ïá½·Î±, another name of the island of Paros⁷³ or of an island near Naxos;⁷⁴ âÎ¥Ïá½·Î·, the ancient name of Zakynthos;⁷⁵ Îá½±ÏÏ-Î±ÏÏÎ± in Lydia;⁷⁶ á¿Î¥ÏÏ-Î¼Î¿-Ï in Caria;⁷⁷ Îá½±Î»Î²-Î¿ÏÏÎ± in Lycia;⁷⁸ á¼¼ÏÎ±-ÏÏÎ± in the region of á¼¸ÏÎ±-ÏÏá½·Î±;⁷⁹ ÎÎ±ÏÏá½±-Î¿ÏÏÎ± in Cappadocia;⁸⁰ á½ÏÏÎµÎ±, a city of the Molossian Epirotes;⁸¹ ÎÎ±Î»Î±-ÏÏá½·Î± or ÎÎ±Î»Î±-ÏÏÎµá½·Î±, an Aegean island near Troizen and Crete.⁸² According to the form ir-, we also find á¼¹Ïá½·Î± Î¦Î»Î±Î¿Ïá½·Î±, a city of Iberia;⁸³ Iria, a Ligurian city;⁸⁴ á¼¼ÏÎ±ÏÎ±, a Libyan city and district;⁸⁵ Iria (vicus Iriae), the ancient name of the Lombard city of Voghera. In Asia Minor, the theme *ur-, as well as in Sumerian-Anatolian uru, ur âcityâ, occurs in the Dravidian languages (Tamil Å«r âcityâ, Brahui and Kurku ur-Ä âhouseâ). We also remember Ur, the ancient city in the region of South Babylon (the homeland of Abraham according to the biblical story), Ur kasâdÄ«m âcity of the Chaldeansâ, and Urusalim or Ur-salimmu, âJerusalemâ. Other equivalents have appeared in Thrace: Al-oros, Az-oros, El-oros, Gaz-oros, Thest-oros, Milk-oros, Tarp-oron, Clev-ora, and Cap-ora. It is also possible to specify: Urgo/Orgo, an island between Corsica and Etruria;⁸⁶ Orgon, in Provence; Basque uri âcityâ; Uri in Switzerland; Hatti ureÅ¡ âhuge, greatâ; and Uria in Calabria. In this context, we cannot exclude the Latin word urbs âcityâ because of its similarity with Basque uri and with the Thracian terms oros, ora, meaning âcityâ as âhigh placeâ. Furthermore, some choronyms formed with uryÄ (feminine) are no less critical, such as á¼¸ÏÎ±-ÏÏá½·Î±Î½ and, with the exchange /r/ ~ /l/, Î Î±Î¼Ï-ÏÎ»á½·Î±Î½ within the Anatolian peninsula,⁸⁷ Ill-yria (*ils-uro-) in the Balkans, or Western area Boi-ura, the âLand of the Boiiâ (Bavaria), At-uria and Baet-uria (Spain). Due to their oscillation, the exchange of liquid consonants is not uncommon. Thus, the towns named Iria, e.g. Iria of the Taurini and Iria of Iberia, have corresponding forms in Basque iri âcityâ and ili-/ uli-, as well as in á¼¸Î»á½·-Î²Î¹ÏÏÎ¹Ï/ Illi-berâ¨isâ© ânew cityâ.⁸⁸ The same phenomenon for the base *ili- occurs in Asia Minor with á¼¼Î»Î¹Î¿Î½, the ancient name of Troy, the Urbs par excellence, a toponym that is also present in Propontis, Thessaly, Thrace, Macedonia⁸⁹ and among the Epirotic Chaones.⁹⁰ Elsewhere, the base *ili- connects to the ProvenÃ§al municipality of Ilonse (Saint-Sauveur), situated on a ridge, Medieval. Iloncia, Ilontia (yr.Â 1109, 1157), to Ilisus, a locality in Attica,⁹¹ and to Iletia, a city in Thessaly.⁹² On the other hand, in the pre-Greek place names, the liquid consonants [l-r] often appear as characteristic suffixes. In many cases, the vowel preceding the consonant elements varies (e.g. Epida-ur-os or Kast-al-ia).⁹³ In Akkadian, the form Älu corresponds to the cuneiform uru, âcityâ.⁹⁴

Returning to the Messapia, the toponym Oria (Lat. Uria, Gr. âÎ¥Ïá½·Î±, Îá½Ïá½·Î±) would reflect the IE or pre-IE root *ur-/ *or- in the hydronymic meaning of âwaterâ. This notion recalls the Basque lexical relic ur âwaterâ, which corresponds to the ancient hydronym Urium.⁹⁵ Several river names such as Uravus and Urma in the Lower Pyrenees, Our in Luxembourg, Oriundis in Illyria, Orethus and Orinos in Sicily, Oreta in Corsica, Orretum in Iberia, the Uri streams in Sardinia and Uria in Calabria would fall into this linguistic field, as well as toponyms such as Orontios in the Illyria, Uria and Hydruntum in the Salento peninsula. As for place names, in Indo-Mediterranean culture the two meanings attributed to the base *ur-/ *or-, namely âcity, territoryâ and âwater, riverâ, could historically converge. Indeed, the earliest sedentary settlements arose mainly on or near watercourses, such as Ur and Uruk in Mesopotamia, along the alluvial plain of the Euphrates. However, we must consider whether we are dealing with two homophonic substrata that were independent of each other by diffusion, or whether, more likely, we are looking at the same root *ur- âcity, a city situated on a watercourseâ. From the root *ur- âcityâ the filiation *ur- âwaterâ may have emerged, as suggested by the later semantic differentiation, which had an independent survival in the western Mediterranean.⁹⁶ The topic has been treated systematically by Francisco Villar (2011: 729â236; Id. 2014: 57â60; 165â170). The study of pre-historic geographical names based on *ur-, both hydronyms and toponyms, shows a widely concomitant distribution in Europe and south-west Asia, with the epicentre of greatest density east-west in the Anatolian peninsula (FigureÂ 26). In Italy, among the place names based on *ur-, we distinguish, as a simple word or first element of a compound, Uria, Uria/Orina, Urias, Uritanus ager and as a second element Agurium, Ancurium, Astura, Cacyrum, Cossura, Manduria, Remuria, Subura, Tibura and Viturii (ethnonym). The analysis of the Thracian appellative bria, which appears in compound terms as the second element meaning âcityâ (e.g. Mesembria, Skadabria, Poltymbria, Selymbria) and combines without phonetic difficulty with the form *uriÄ and the ToA ri, ToB riye âcityâ, raises several interpretative questions. First, the word *uriÄ from an original *wer- in the sense of âheight, high placeâ (IEWÂ 1151â1152) does not support this meaning in the languages of the historical age. Secondly, only appellatives of full and not zero degree derive from *wer- (= war-; werd-; wers-). Thirdly, Straboâs remark equating the term Î²Ïá½·Î± with the Ancient Greek word Ïá½¹Î»Î¹Ï,⁹⁷ later taken up by Stephanus of Byzantium (416), cannot be understood literally, since urban culture was not widespread in Thrace. Fourthly, its inhabitants traditionally lived not on fortified hills, as the semantic development of *uriÄ âheightâ (> âcityâ) would require, but on small reliefs and in stilt villages. Consider, for example, the platforms at Lake Prasiad described by Herodotus in the Classical times, similar to Mesolithic communities gathered around hydrographic basins (lakes or rivers).⁹⁸ From this point of view, the name bria/ uria becomes clearer if we associate it not with the semantic notion of âhighland, mountainâ but with that of âwater, riverâ. Thus, it seems legitimate to hypothesise that the form uria (*uriÄ) is a thematic adjectival derivative in -ia arising from the basic noun uro- âriver, waterâ. Through simplification and substantivisation it then gradually became uria âcityâ as an appellative name, as documented by the terms ToA ri, ToB riye âcityâ and by the Thracian word bria in a context of betacism.⁹⁹ Despite the difficulties of linguistic analysis, however, there seems to be only one point that unites the views of the various researchers. The appellative bria/ uria (<br-/ ur-ia), as the second element of the toponyms or choronyms, takes on the meaning of âinhabited place, city, region, territoryâ. This definition remains valid in several respects: a) whether the original base goes back to the root of IE *wer- âto close, coverâ (IEWÂ 1152; 1162: uÌ¯er-³), in the sense of âdelimited place offering protectionâ; b) whether it belongs to the stem IE or pre-IE *wer- (IEWÂ 1152: uÌ¯er-²) or belongs to the stem *or-/ *ur- ~ *ol-/ *ul- in the meaning âhigh placeâ; c) whether it finally refers to the root IE or pre-IE *ur-/ *or- and *uro- âwater, riverâ as âa place situated near a watercourseâ. Thus, the toponymic meaning of the term uria or bria in the context of betacism, as an adjective derived initially from uro- with the suffix -io/ -ia, denoted a dwelling unit connected to the river and water, which then, by simplification took on the sense of âvillage, cityâ (like the villa uria type). Furthermore, we cannot exclude that the appellative morpheme, which was mainly used as a second element in compounds, was gradually perceived as a derivative suffix in its own right. Thus, the presence of the term bria/ uria in Messapia (Salentine Peninsula), as a second element, appears not only in the generally accepted place names (ÎÎ±Î½Î´- á½»ÏÎ¹Î¿Î½, Î£Î±Ï-á½»ÏÎ¹Î¿Î½, Î¥Ïá½·Î±, Îá½Ïá½·Î±), but also, more obviously, in the choronym ÎÎ±Î»Î±-Î²Ïá½·Î± as âterritory-ÎÎ±Î»Î±â. The same applies to the ethnonym ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½· as inhabitants of the Messapian region. In this context, the symmetry -br-ia/ -br-oi, starting from *ur-/ *br-, does not allow us to clearly determine whether the choronym historically precedes or follows the ethnonym. The origin of bria/ uria as an appellative used alone or in compounds suggests that the choronym as a geographical name arose earlier. However, we do not know when and under what historical circumstances the morpheme may have eventually transformed into an independent derivational suffix (TableÂ 2).¹⁰⁰

FigureÂ 26

The frequency of non-hydronyms in -uro toponyms

Villar et al. 2011: 427 Fig.Â 140

TableÂ 1

Examples of hydronyms and toponyms Uria / Bria between Europe and Asia Minor (VillarÂ 2014: 166â167)

	Hydronyms	Toponyms
Simple word	Uria (Aetolia)	Uria (Hispania)
	Urius (Hispania)	Uria (Campania, Apulia, Italia)
		Urium (Hispania)
Second element of compounds	Aturia (Hispania)	Aturia, Baeturia, Menturio, Verurium (Hispania)
	Ceniuria, Vinturius (theonym, Gallia)	Liguria, Manduria, Remuria (Italia)
	Tilurius (Dalmatia)	Tapuria (Gallia)
	Ishashurija, Hippurius (Anatolia)	Cynuria (Graecia)
		Tugurias (Moesia Superior)
		Hapurija, Hipurija, Ilurija, Kasurija, Nahurija, Sakurija, Suhurija, Taskurija, Zimurija (Anatolia)

TableÂ 2

Series of toponyms Uria/Bria between Thrace/ Phrygia and Salento Peninsula

	Thrace/ Phrygia	Salento Peninsula
Simple word	Bria	Uria
Second element of compounds	Alaibria, Astibria, Bolbabria	Manduria, Saturia
	Kalabria (< Kalauria)	Kalabria (choronym) Kalabroi (ethnonym)
	Kombreia, Limnobria, Menebria, Mesembria, Selymbria, Sombria

Strab. 7. 5. 7.

Hsch. Îº 380. 1. fr.Â 20; Nicand. ap. Ant. Lib. Metam. fr.Â 31.

Hdt. 3. 138.

Strab. 6. 3. 1â5.

Alessio (1948) 17â18. The scholar also notes: âDa composti tautologici, come Caladunum, oggi Cala, nella Spagna (dunon in celtico significa Â«fortezzaÂ») il significato di questa base Ã¨ ben determinato. [â¦] cfr. anche il ligure galabr(i)a Â«pernice delle AlpiÂ», ricostruibile sulle forme di alcuni dialetti alpini (gialabro ecc.), ed una voce del sostrato passata nel latino calabrix Â«biancospino, pianta che cresce nei terreni rocciosiÂ», donde it. merid. calavrice, sardo calÃ rvigheâ; Id. (1949) 7â8: âPer la Puglia verrebbe fatto di pensare a quelle caratteristiche costruzioni in pietra, certamente retaggio di antiche popolazioni indigene, conosciute coi nomi di Â«specchieÂ» e Â«trulliÂ», monumenti funebri e abitazioni che hanno molti punti di contatto con quelli che, in Sardegna, con misteriosa voce protosarda, ci chiamano tuttora nuraghiâ. See also Alessio (1962) 80; Alessio, De Giovanni (1893) 108. Battisti, Alessio (1950â1957) I. 665â670; DT, 114. On the verb Î²Ïá½»Ï, cf. Alessio (1946b) 50: âradicale egeo Î²ÏÏ- Â«crescereÂ» che appare in Î²Ïá½»Ï Â«germogliare, pullulare riccamenteÂ» (Â«Î²Ïá½»ÏÎ½ Î¸Î±Î»Î»á½¹ÏÂ» Soph.), Î²Ïá½»Î¿Î½, Â«muschioÂ», Î²ÏÏá½½Î½Î·, Â«vitalbaÂ»â. The name Sallentini was reconstructed by Battisti (1933: 267â277; Id. 1942: 369â385), starting from the base *sala, with the hydronymic sense of âcorso dâacquaâ or âacquitrinoâ. See also Alessio (1962) 304: âSal(l)entÄ«nÄ«/Î£Î±Î»Î±Î½Ïá½·Î½Î¿Î¹ etn. Ã¨ indubbiamente un elemento del sostrato, ricollegabile direttamente con la base idronimica medit. *sal- (in Salernum, medioev. ÏÎ±Î»á½±Î½Î´ÏÎ±, ecc.) che spiega anche il nome della Salapia palÅ«s. Legittimo Ã¨ il confronto sia con lâillir. Salluntum (It. Ant.), sia con lâetnico Î£Î±Î»Î·Î½ÏÎ¹Î½Î±Î¹ della Dacia (LEW. II, p.Â 466), che presentano formanti anarieâ. For *sala, cf. Dybo (2013) 80: âWater-meadows, swamps. PIE *selo/es- âwater-meadowâ: Ind. sÃ¡ras- n. âlake, pond, poolâ Mayr. EWAÂ 2, 708; Grk. á¼Î»Î¿Ï n. âfeuchte Wiese, sumpfige Niederung, Marschlandâ, á¼Î»ÎµÎ¹Î¿Ï âpalustrisâ Beekes 415â. The association between Calabri/ Calabria and the root *kar-/ *kal- in the sense of âstone, rockâ has recently been revived by Thornhill (2016) 96â97 and n.Â 55.

Alessio (1935) 133â151; Id. (1936) 165â189. Cf. Bertoldi (1931) 161; Ribezzo (1933) 210 n.Â 1; Battisti (1934) 182. See Perono Cacciafoco (2015b), 37 n.Â 11: âthe stem *kal- is interpreted in this work as a Â«variantÂ» of *kar produced by a Â«pseudo-rhotacisticÂ» phenomenonâdating back to remote stages in (proto-)Indo-Europeanâthat implies a Â«changeÂ» or a Â«lenitionÂ» of /r/ in /l/. In this context, *kal- seems, therefore, connected with *kar- and it could be defined as a variant from a common remote root (*kar-) possibly at the origins of a family of place names associated among themselves not only through historical phonetics, but also through (diachronic) semantic affinityâ; Id. (2008) 13â24. See Pokorny (1959) 523â524; 531â532. Cf. Kranjc (2011) 517: âThe same base covers different forms *kal-, *gal-, *kar-, *gar-, also *al-, *ar- after the fall of the first consonant, and even like in Greek *l- or *r-. The same radical can be in the full form *kal- or in the reduced one *kl-. To the mentioned eight forms for the same base *kl-, *gl-, *kr-, *gr- can be addedâ. Regarding the latter aspect, see FouchÃ© (1938: 266â276), both for the contracted variant of zero degree *kr- *gr, *kl, and for the even more reduced form *al, *ar with a single consonant. See also Rostaing (1950) 138â158; Boisson (1990) 31. For a reasoned list of toponyms based on *kar- and for the general meaning of âhardâ, see Santano Moreno (2008) 66â69 and n.Â 28: Â«La radice *kar(r)- dei testimoni toponomastici e degli appellativi Ã¨ riconducibile allâindoeuropeo *kar- âduroâ (con reduplicazione karkar; IEW, 531â532), che presenta continuatori in antico indiano karkara-, karkasa-; nelle lingue germaniche (con suffisso -t *hardÃº- <*kar-tÃº-): gotico hardus âduroâ, inglese hart âid.â, tedesco hart âid.â. Il senso âpietraâ nelle lingue celtiche: antico irlandese carrac ârocciaâ, moderno carraig, irlandese medio carr âterra rocciosa, rocciaâ, carra âpietraâ, antico gallese carrecc, moderno carreg âpietra, rocciaâ <*karrika, carrog < *karraka âruscelloâÂ»; Â«La radice puÃ² designare qualsiasi oggetto di natura dura quale âpietraâ, âgamberoâ: antico indiano karkata-, latino cancer (dissimilazione di *carcro-), greco ÎºÎ±ÏÎºÎ¹Î½Î¿Î¹; âguscio, noceâ: greco ÎºÎ±ÏÏÎ¿Î½, latino carina, gallese ceri (*cariso-), IEWÂ 531Â»; Id. (2003) 5â49. For Lat. cancer, see De Vaan (2008: 86â87), which, because of its round shape, recalls an original *karkros âfenceâ.

Hsch. Îº 380. 1. fr.Â 20.

Polyb. 10. 4. 2â4.

Strab. 6. 3. 1â5.

Hsch. Îº 382. 1; Polyb. 10. 4. 2â4. See Compatangelo-Soussignan (1994) 70â71 and n.Â 35; Nenci (1978) 47â50; Id. (1982) 2; Lombardo (2014); Id. (2015a).

For a reconstruction of the different points of view, see Santano Moreno (2003) 19â21. The root *karra for Alessio (1948: 17â18; Id. 1935: 133â151; Id. 1936: 165â189) belongs to a âsostrato mediterraneoâ, which Devoto (1940: 37â54) calls âambiente mediterraneoâ, consisting of common names referring to geography, zoology, botany, place names and personal names. Bertoldi (1933: 279â293) and Von Wartburg (1922: II, 408b) consider the base *carra as a remnant of the western substratum, judging by its geographical extent, including pre-Celtic. Hubschmid (1953: 93â97; 108â112) refers to the Euro-African substratum. Nouvel (1978: 967â969) considers *kar-/ *gar- to be of pre-Indo-European, Mediterranean, Neolithic and Near Eastern origin. So also Rohlfs (1977) Â§â¯71. More recently, the studies of Tovar (1977) point to a root *kar(r) of pre-Indo-European origin, which was then translated into the phonetic system of the Indo-European; Id. (1982); Villar (1997) 102â103. Cf. Perono Cacciafoco (2015b), 36: âThese roots, possibly non-Indo-European, appear as integrated in a clearly Indo-European linguistic (and, therefore, phonetic) system and allow the scholars to think a) that they are, in reality, originally Indo-European or b) that, being pre-Indo-European in their origins, they have been transferred, integrated, re-used, re-functionalized, and assimilated as loanwords (or Â«loan-rootsÂ») by Indo-Europeans (and adapted to the Indo-European phonetic system) in/ into the common Indo-European and, then, perceived and used as the other Indo-European original rootsâ. Id. (2008) 13â24; Santano Moreno (2003) 33â34: Â«La raÃz *kar(r)- en sus acepciones de âpiedraâ y âroble, encinaâ es perfectamente compatible con una etimologÃa indoeuropea, sin que tengamos que recurrir al concepto de sustrato mediterrÃ¡neo. La raÃz *kar(r)-, por otra parte, forma parte de esa toponimia europea relativamente homogÃ©nea que se conoce con el nombre de hidronimia paleoeuropea o AlteuropÃ¤isch como la denominÃ³ Krahe. Estos nombres de rÃo estÃ¡n formados a partir de raÃces que frecuentemente se encuentran como apelativos en las diferentes lenguas indoeuropeas histÃ³ricas, ya se relacionen con el agua como *war- âagua, rÃoâ, *pal- âagua estancada, charcoâ, *mar- âlaguna, marâ, ya indiquen cualidades o caracterÃsticas de las aguas o sus corrientes como *tar- âfuerte, penetranteâ, *albho- âclaro, blancoâ, *ais- ârÃ¡pidoâÂ â¦ y *kar(r)-refiriÃ©ndose a un rÃo âpedregosoâ, cf. galÃ©s carrog âarroyoâÂ». On the issues arising from the use of the terms âpreindeuropeoâ/ âmediterraneoâ or âindeuropeoâ/ âpaleuropeoâ/ âilliricoâ for Italian prehistory and protohistory, cf. Silvestri (2000) 29â34.

Frisk (1954â1972) 274â275; Chantraine (1968â1980) 200; Beekes (2010) 246.

Deroy (1962) 1â13; Perono Cacciafoco (2008) 13â24; Id. (2015b) 35â50.

Deroy (1962) 1â13. Cf. Blasco Ferrer (2010), 28; Borghi (2018) 19.

Cf. Perono Cacciafoco (2008) 13â24; Id. (2015b) 35â50.

Il. 2. 677; Strab. 10. 5. 19; St. Byz. s.v. Îá½±Î»ÏÎ´Î½Î±.

Deroy (1962) 1â13.

Perono Cacciafoco (2008) 13â24; Id. (2015b) 35â50; Benveniste (2001 [1976; 1969]) 340â346.

Od. 5. 452; 10. 94.

Hes. Erg. 531.

Xen. Anab. 6. 4.

Stadiasm. 250.

Thuc. 4. 75.

Paus. 2. 32.

Scyl. 102; Strab. 16. 2.

Hsch. Îº 380. 1.

Eratost. ap. Strab. 3. 2.

Hsch. Î³ 94.

Strab. 3. 5.

Serv. in Aen. 7. 728.

Strab. 4. 2. 1.

Caes. De Bel. Gal. 2. 4; 7. 75; Plin. 19. 8. See Deroy (1959); Id. (1962) 1â13.

Pokorny (1959) 531â532; Krahe (1953); Id. (1962); Tovar (1977); Id. (1982); Villar (1997) 102â127; Ballester (2007) 25â40; Perono Cacciafoco (2008) 13â24; Id. (2015b): the author includes the toponyms Carcare and Cairo Montenotte. Cf. Perono Cacciafoco (2008) 13â24; Id. (2015b), 36: âFrancisco Villar [1997: 102â103], completing the Tovarâs discourse, associates with the *kar- root the Indo-European stems *mal- ârock, stoneâ and *lap-/ *lep- ârock, stoneâ (Ancient Greek Î»ÎµÏá½±Ï, Latin lapis). It could be possible to hypothesize, for these two roots, a pre-Indo-European origin with a subsequent adaptation of the same to the Indo-European phonetic system in the possible transition between pre-Indo-European and Indo-European, after linguistic contactâ. Id. (2015b) 48: âThrough the analysis of the presence of the *kar-/ *kal- root in the toponomastics of Europe (as outlined by A.Tovar and F.Villar) and especially Italy it is possible to highlight a toponymic system generated, starting from the original (prehistoric) naming process, by this root. This Â«familyÂ» of place names and oronyms dates back surely to the Neolithic, but it is possible to infer a really ancient and more remote origin, ascribable to the Upper Paleolithicâ; Id. (2015a) 132. Cf. Alessio (1935) 133â151; FouchÃ© (1938) 266â276; Hubschmid (1959â1960) 39; Santano Moreno (2003) 21â25; Id. (2008) 62â69; Blasco Ferrer (2011) 459â464; Id. (2011â2012) 206.

Deroy (1962) 1â13.

Devoto, Oli (1975 [1967]) 404â407; Perono Cacciafoco (2008) 13â24.

Perono Cacciafoco (2008) 13â24; Bolelli (1995 [1994; 1989]) 74â75; Devoto, Oli (1975 [1967]) 407.

Perono Cacciafoco (2008); Deroy (1962) 1â13; Borghi (2018) 19.

Hsch. Îº 380. 1. fr.Â 20.

Alessio (1946b) 50; Id. (1948) 17â18; Id. (1949) 7â8.

Zonar. Epit. Hist. 18. 9. 6. Dindorf (1871) IV. 228â229; Migne (1887) 289â290.

Frisk (1954â1972) 274â275; Chantraine (1968â1980) 200; Beekes (2010) 246.

Chron. Pasch. 622. 18.

Cf. Gautier (1975); Crow, Turner (2009); Whitby (1989).

Georgiev (1961); Id. (1966) 125â140; 178; Id. (1977) 13; Id. (1957); Detschew (1957) 86â87; 132; 356â357; Id. (1960); Velkova (1967); Id. (1972); KatiÄiÄ (1976) 128â153; Duridanov (1976); PolomÃ© (1983) 539â540 and n.Â 93; Serafimov (2007) 134â154.

Strab. 7. 6. 1; St. Byz. 416.

Zonar. Epit. Hist. 18. 9. 6. Cf. Tomaschek (1886) 331; KÃ¼lzer (2008) 421â422; Id. (2010) 438.

Mazzarino (1939) 148; Allen (1968) 28â29; Zancani Montuoro (1974) 70â80; Lepore, Mele (1983) 882; Horroks (1997) 111â112; 122â123; 165â167; 170â171; Buth (2008a) 4; Id. (2008b) 217â230. Contra Nenci (1982) 1â2.

Detschew (1957) 86; Russu (1967), 96; Georgiev (1966) 178.

Strab. 7. 6. 1: âÏá¿Ï Î´á½² Ïá½¹Î»ÎµÏÏ Î²Ïá½·Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î»Î¿ÏÎ¼á½³Î½Î·Ï Î¸Ïá¾³ÎºÎ¹ÏÏá½·â. Cf. St. Byz. 416: âÎ²Ïá½·Î± Î³á½°Ï Ïá½´Î½ Ïá½¹Î»Î¹Î½ ÏÎ±Ïá½¶ ÎÏá¾·ÎºÎµÏâ.

Hsch. Î² 1126. 1.

LidÃ©n (1916) 143â145; Frisk (1954â1972) 268; Georgiev (1961); Id. (1966) 178; Id. (1977), 13; Chantraine (1968â1980) 195â196; Serafimov (2007) 134â154; Beekes (2010), 239.

See Serafimov (2007) 134â154 and Map. 2. Cf. Velkov (1983) 202: âGenerally it is assumed that the Thracian para corresponds to the Greek kome, the Thracian diza to horion, a fortified settlement. [â¦] Bria and dava correspond to the Greek polis, denoting a larger Thracian settlement, and later, a Thracian town, although both terms are not identical because their social and economic contents differ, as do the economic and political systems of Hellas and Thraceâ.

Pokorny (1959) 1152, 1162. Cf. Georgiev (1966) 126; Russu (1969) 112; Detschew (1976) 86; Mallory (2007) 85.

Greenberg (2002) II. 42.

Serafimov (2007) 138: âI think that BRIA is connected also with Etruscan spurâcity, spuraâcommunity and Sanskrit PURAâcity, which in my opinion are related to O.Ch.Sl. verbs ÐÐ ÐÐ¢Ð (brati), Ð¡ÐªÐEÐ ÐÐ¢Ð (saberati)âto collect, to gather in one place, Ð¡ÐªÐÐÐ Ðª (sÄbor)âassembly, community, gathering and POÐ (roj) swarm, multitude. The best match offers the Slovenian word beraâassembly, gathering. So BRIA had the meaning: community, people united in a great group. It is logical, because exactly the settlements of the type BRIA had the largest communitiesâ.

Frisk (1954â1972) 268; Parlangeli (1960) 21â29; Georgiev (1966) 178; Chantraine (1968â1980) 195â196; Van Windekens (1976) 406; Della Volpe, Mallory (1997) 210â211; Mallory, Adams (2006) 221; Mallory (2007) 85. Cf. Paliga (1987) 23â24: âIn this respect, the Thracian word has clear affinities with terms and place-names of this type like Provencal and Catalan brac âa moorâ, place-name (hereafter PN) Saint-Martin-de-Brasque, Bresq, Briasq, Braux (<*br-aw-is), etc. [see Rostaing 1950: 101â103]. The same pre-IE root is witnessed in Thracian para, bara [â¦]. The Thracian term bria does not seem to be preserved in any modern form, excepting PN Nesembdr in Bulgaria which arguably reflects the old Mesembriaâ. Apart from the hypothesis of Pisani (1957: 76â79), according to which Î²Ïá½·Î± reflects an ancient *brujÄ, connected to the Ligurian pruiam âcellamâ (see the discussion in PolomÃ© 1982: 880).

Villar (1991) 321; Id. (2014) 213â234. See Della Volpe, Mallory (1997) 210â211.

Ribezzo (1920a) 83â97; Id. (1920b) 221â236; Ribezzo, Melillo (1931) 151â161; Meillet (1938) 82; Ernout, Meillet (1959); Paliga (1987) 23â24; Id. (2006) 147â149; Id. (2016) 37â48; Id. (2017) 35â45. Cf. Laporta (1989) 85â86.

Paliga (1987) 23â24; Id. (2006) 147â149; Id. (2016) 37â48; Id. (2017) 35â45.

Nenci (1978) 55 and n.Â 36: âA un idronimo penserebbe invece lâAlessio (Problemi di toponomastica pugliese, Arch. Stor. Pugl., 1950, 230â259, 249), ma mal si concilia la frequenza di questi idronimi con lâassenza nel Salento di corsi dâacqua. [â¦] Viceversa vorrei osservare che urium, -on in Plin., N.H., 35, 75 indica âla terraâ e mi pare non privo di significato per lâipotesi che -yrion, indichi âterritorioâ, il fatto che Oria romana prendesse il nome di Urbius (Tab. Peut., 8, 2)â. For Thuriae, that of Livius 10. 2 (âThurias urbem in Sallentinisâ), which is perhaps to be identified with Roca Vecchia on the Adriatic coast, see Sirago (1980â1987) 95â104.

Hdt. 7. 170; Strab. 6. 3. 6.

Laporta (1989) 103, referring to Krahe (1929) 147 16; Id. (1925) 60â61.

See Frisk (1954â1972) 268; Parlangeli (1960) 21â29; Georgiev (1966) 178; Chantraine (1968â1980) 195â196; Van Windekens (1976) 406; Paliga (1987) 23â24; Della Volpe, Mallory (1997) 210â211; Mallory, Adams (2006) 221; Mallory (2007) 85.

Battisti (1943) 265â269; Frisk (1954â1972) 268; Parlangeli (1960) 23; Paliga (1987) 23â24; Laporta (1989) 104â107.

Hsch. Îº 380. 1. fr.Â 20.

See De Simone (1962) 113â135; Id. (1964) 2â151; 215â229; 233â361; Id. (1972) 125â201; Parlangeli (1960); Untermann (1964) 155â213; PolomÃ© (1982) 866â876; BlaÅ¾ek (2005) 15â33; Matzinger (2015) 57â66.

Strab. 7. 5. 7.

Schol. in Iliad., Heyne, 13. 459. 4. Cf. Latham (1859) II. 34; Zancani Montuoro (1974) 70â80.

Schuchardt (1907) 51; 72; Ribezzo (1920a) 90; Id. (1920b) 70; Trombetti (1925) 30; Ribezzo, Melillo (1931) 63; Frisk (1954â1972) 268; Parlangeli (1960) 21â29; Georgiev (1966) 178; Chantraine (1968â1980) 195â196; Van Windekens (1976) 406; Laporta (1989) 88; Della Volpe, Mallory (1997) 210â211; Mallory, Adams (2006) 221; Mallory (2007) 85. Cf. Paliga (1987) 23â24.

Battisti (1955â1956) 279â282; Tagliavini (1972) 324; Laporta (1989) 107â108.

Il. 2. 496.

St. Byz. 560.

St. Byz. 681.

Plut. De Exil. 9.

Plin. 5. 54.

St. Byz. 436.

Polyb. 17. 2.

St. Byz. 157.

St. Byz. 337.

Strab. 14, 2.

Ptol. 3. 9. 4.

Strab. 8. 6. 3.

Ptol. 2. 6. 24.

Plin. 3. 49.

Hdt. 4. 159.

Plin. 3. 81.

Strab. 1. 12; St. Byz. 337.

Strab. 4. 1. 6; Plin. 3 32.

St. Byz. 330â331.

Verg. Aen. 2. 335.

Plin. 4, 24.

Plin. 4. 29. See Trombetti (1925) 17; 83; Rostaing (1950) 70; Detschew (1957) 535; MuÅu (1981) 199; Paliga (1987) 23â29; Laporta (1989) 107â108; Villar et al. (2011) 429. See Vennemann (2003) 304; 311 n.Â 31: âDas Land der Boii hieÃ ursprÃ¼nglich +Boiura/+Boiira. Dies war ein Kompositum. Sein erster Bestandteil war der Namen der Boii, sein zweiter Bestandteil war ein Substantiv mit der Bedeutung âSiedlungâ, das verallgemeinertâoder pluralisch konstruiert oder verstandenâauch âLandâ bedeuten konnteâ (304); âDas Elementâur- sieht dem Suffix in Lig-ur-i-a, Bit-ur-ig-es, Cad-ur-c-i und einigen anderen LÃ¤nder- und VÃ¶lkernamen Ã¤hnlich, doch geht es dort aufâus- zurÃ¼ck, so daÃ man ohne Grund einen Rhotazismus auch in dem hier besprochenen Namen ansetzen mÃ¼Ãte. Deshalb mÃ¶chte ich oben die LÃ¶sung in einer anderen Richtung suchenâ (311).

KatiÄiÄ (1976) 40â57.

Parpola (1997 [1971]) 119â145.

Plin. 3. 7. See Alessio (1946a) 148â150.

Cf. Battisti (1943) 265â269; Id. (1955â1956) 279â282; Frisk (1954â1972) 268; Parlangeli (1960) 23; Tagliavini (1972) 324; Paliga (1987) 23â24. See Laporta (1989: 105â109), who adopts the âunitaryâ thesis with great caution: âla valutazione di questo o quellâindizio inteso a comprovare questa o quella interpretazione permane pur sempre soggettivaâ (109).

Strab. 7. 6. 1.

Hdt. 5. 16.

Villar (1991) 321; Id. et al. (2011) 729â236; Id. (2014) 57â60; 165â170; Boardman et al. (1992) 612.

100

For sources on the terms ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²Ïá½·Î±/ ÎÎ±Î»Î±Î²ÏÎ¿á½·, see Chap.Â I and Appendix. On the relationship between choronym and ethnonym, cf. Pellegrini (1994 [1990]) 417.

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The Historical Landscape of Ancient KalabrÃa

Balkan and Aegean Linguistic Influences

Series:Â Ancient Languages and Civilizations, Volume: 10

Cover The Historical Landscape of Ancient KalabrÃa

E-Book ISBN:: 9789004711822

Publisher:: Brill

Print Publication Date:: 27 Nov 2024

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ChapterÂ 5 The Root *Kar-/ *Kal- and the Toponymic Appellative Bria/ Uria

1 KalabroÃ­ as the âInhabitants of the Rocksâ

2 The Complexity of the Pre-Hellenic *Kala Toponymic Base

3 The Root *Kar-/ *Kal- as âStoneâ and âWater-Carved Stoneâ

4 The Pre-Hellenic Toponymic Appellative Bria/ Uria

FigureÂ 23

FigureÂ 24

FigureÂ 25

FigureÂ 26

TableÂ 1

TableÂ 2

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The Historical Landscape of Ancient KalabrÃ­a

Balkan and Aegean Linguistic Influences

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ChapterÂ 5 The Root **Kar*-/ **Kal- and the Toponymic Appellative Bria/ Uria*

1 KalabroÃ as the âInhabitants of the Rocksâ

2 The Complexity of the Pre-Hellenic **Kala* Toponymic Base

3 The Root **Kar*-/ **Kal*- as âStoneâ and âWater-Carved Stoneâ

The Historical Landscape of Ancient KalabrÃa