Tables
3.1 Global opium production 73
5.1 Conflict constellations in Northern Pakistan 128
5.2 Education in comparison – Gilgit-Baltistan in relation to Pakistan’s provinces 135
7.1 Conflict constellations in Northern Pakistan 201
7.2 Education in comparison – Gilgit-Baltistan in relation to Pakistan’s provinces 205
8.1 Chances and constraints of improved accessibility in High Asia’s mountain systems 216
8.2 Multidimensional approach to sustainable tourism 227
10.1 Conflict constellations in Northern Pakistan 290
12.1 Trade via Chitral 1920–1926 328
12.2 Chitral state revenue from import and export taxes: Badakhshan and Chinese Turkestan 1927–1936 334
14.1 Major trans-montane road systems in High Asia 367
14.2 Regular import of bulk items from the lowlands into Northern Pakistan in the early 1990s 372
14.3 Chances and constraints of improved accessibility and urbanisation in South Asia’s mountain systems 375
15.1 Major trans-montane road systems in High Asia 393
15.2 Xinjiang commerce: production, import and export of goods 399
15.3 Collection of transit dues in the Hunza Valley in the 1920s 401
15.4 Comparison of transport costs and time consumption for major trade routes in 1931 403
15.5 Trade via Chitral 1920–1926 408
15.6 Chitral state revenue from import and export taxes: Badakhshan and Chinese Turkestan 1927–1936 415
15.7 Import of regular items from the lowlands to the Eastern Hindukush and Karakoram valleys of Northern Pakistan in 1989 420
20.1 Initial Chinese reforms affecting pastoralism on the Tibetan Plateau 493
20.2 Recent reforms affecting pastoralism on the Tibetan Plateau 495
22.1 Comparison of nomadic strategies with combined mountain agriculture 531
22.2 Yak populations and their distribution in Western High Asia 534
22.3 The system of Pamirs 535
22.4 Potential fodder availability of pastures in the Pamir regions 538
24.1 Language affiliations and synoptic organisation of vernaculars from the Pamir, Hindukush and Karakoram interface 580
24.2 Language use in various Gilgit-Baltistan and Chitral news media. Source: own compilation with support from Yasir Hussain and Zulfiqar Ali Khan 589
25.1 Language composition of Pakistan’s regional entities 597
25.2 Overview of languages prevalent in the Hindukush-Karakoram 602
25.3 Language groups in Gilgit Agency 1951 605
25.4a Linguistic diversity in the Karakoram and Eastern Hindukush in 1991 (percentage figures) 607
25.4b Linguistic diversity in neighbouring regions in the 1990s 608
25.5 Comparison of regional affiliation among entrepreneurs in Gilgit Bazaar 1964 and 1991 615
30.1 Framework for benefit analysis 691
30.2 Demographic development in Central Hunza and Shigar 1931 to 1998 707
Figures
1.1 The former mīr of Hunza Safdar Ali Khan in Yarkand on 19 April 1930 54
1.2 The sketch map on ‘supply routes to China’ shows the proposed alignment of the first motor road from Peshawar via Gilgit and the Hunza Valley to Kashgar and onward to Hami. All supply routes from the western Central Asian sector and British India were supposed to lead to Hami and Sinsinsin (Xingxingxia) at the boundary between Gansu and Xinjiang Provinces. The sketch map was classified as ‘most secret’ and represents the information and planning stage of January 1943 57
2.1 Development of Afghan poppy cultivation 1980–2018 68
3.1 Poppy cultivation in Afghanistan: 1999 and 2004 compared 82
3.2 Development of Afghan poppy cultivation 1980–2005 83
3.3 Estimated maximum values of Afghan opium production 1994–2005 85
3.4 Average gross income per hectare from poppy cultivation in Afghanistan 1994–2005 86
3.5 Trafficking routes of opium and heroin from Afghanistan and contraband confiscation in transit and consumer countries 87
3.6 Raw opium and heroin seizures in neighbouring countries 88
4.1 Kashgar oasis 95
4.2 Fortified Kashgar around 1900 with city wall according to a plan drawn by Lieutenant Kirilov in 1900 96
4.3 Kashgar as latest member of China’s Special Economic Zones 98
5.1 Suggested provincial division of Pakistan 102
5.2 The Kashmir stalemate situation 106
5.3a Language groups 1941 107
5.3b Language groups 1981 109
5.4 Disputed territories and constitutional peculiarities of Western High Asia 110
5.5 Constitutional set-up 112
5.6 Demand for equal citizenship: “Vote is our right” 116
5.7 GBC – Gilgit-Baltistan and Chitral 122
5.8 Graffiti of Balawaristan National Front along Karakoram Highway 123
5.9 Linguistic variegation in Gilgit-Baltistan 133
6.1 Karakoram Highway as main road link between the Indian subcontinent and the Tarim Basin 147
6.2 Marco Polo’s route of travels 148
6.3 Traditional trade routes and lines of communication in the Silk Road network 149
6.4 Upper section: imperial expansion in Central Asia in the early phase of the Great Game (app. 1865); lower section: consolidation of British and Russian spheres of influence at the time of the Anglo-Russian Convention (1907) 150
6.5 Urumchi and Kabul represent centres of political instability in Lattimore’s and Hauner’s model 155
6.6 Important trade routes in Crossroads Asia around 1935 157
6.7 Indo-Xinjiang trade 1895–1934 158
6.8 Demarcation of Afghanistan’s boundaries and the partition of the Pashtun settlement region 160
6.9 Disputed territories and constitutional peculiarities in Western High Asia 161
6.10 The spatial outline of Pashtunistan irredentism 163
6.11 Chinese territorial claims towards Tajikistan 165
6.12 Isolated exclaves in the borderlands of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan 166
6.13 Conflicting demands and realities in the dispute over Kashmir 169
6.14 Constitutional setup of spaces and bodies in Pakistan 171
6.15 Transformation of landownership and property rights in Tajikistan 174
7.1 Constitutional system of Pakistan 181
7.2 The Kashmir stalemate 182
7.3 Disputed territories and constitutional peculiarities in Western High Asia 184
7.4 Linguistic variegation in Gilgit Baltistan 200
8.1 Karakoram Highway – main exchange corridor between China and Pakistan 222
8.2 Foreign visitors of Baltit Fort 229
8.3 Trans-border trade between Pakistan and PR of China via Karakoram Highway 231
9.1 Trans-border and trans-mountain trade and traffic routes in the Himalayan arc 236
9.2 Spheres of influence in High Asia around 1865 238
9.3 Effects of the Great Game and the Asia Convention on boundary-making around 1907 239
9.4 Indo-Xinjiang trade 1895–1934 242
9.5 Afghan borderlands – historical roots of disputes 244
9.6 Areas under dispute between India and Pakistan 245
9.7 Pamirian borders affecting high mountain pastures 248
9.8 Nepalese state (trans)formation 253
9.9 North-eastern India – from Assam to the Seven Sisters 255
9.10 The borders of Tibet – political-historical and ethno-linguistic incongruities 257
9.11 Denominational diversity in High Asia 259
10.1 Suggested provincial division of Pakistan 268
10.2 The Kashmir stalemate 272
10.3a Language groups 1941 273
10.3b Language groups 1981 275
10.4 Disputed territories and constitutional peculiarities in Western High Asia 276
10.5 NAC – Northern Areas and Chitral 285
11.1 Silk Road network 302
11.2 Great Game – Boundary-making between 1865 and 1907 305
11.3 Afghanistan – borders of a buffer state 310
11.4 Wakhan – a corridor separating the sphere of influence of two super powers 311
11.5 Badakhshan in mid-19th century and present administrative set-up 314
11.6 Cross-boundary exchange relations of Kirghiz and Wakhi households 315
11.7 Gorno-Badakhshan – a peculiar boundary situation in the Afghan-China borderland 316
11.8 Central Asian boundary disputes in the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet Union 318
11.9 Property changes during the two 20th century transformations in Central Asia 322
12.1 Chitral-Yarkand trade via Baroghil Pass 330
12.2 Caravan trade via Baroghil and Dorah Pass 330
14.1 Railway network along the South Asian mountain arc 1909, 1931 and 1961: a) Extent of railway network 1909; b) Extent of railway network 1931; c) Extent of railway network 1961 362, 364–365
14.2 Important trade routes between Central Asia and British India in 1935 365
14.3 Road network in the southern rimlands of the Himalayan arc in 1931, 1961, and 1999: a) road accessibility in 1931; b) road accessibility in 1961; c) road accessibility in 1999 368–369
14.4 a) Urban growth in Gilgit 1890–1998; b) Comparison of urban growth in Darjeeling and Gilgit 380–381
14.5 Regional disparities, roads and urban centres in Nepal: a) ecological zones and administrative districts of Nepal; b) regional disparities in human development; c) road network and urban centres in Nepal 384–385
14.6 Human development indicators for selected mountain areas in South Asia 386
15.1 Important trade routes between Central Asia and British India in 1935 395
15.2 British Indian and Russian/Soviet trade with Kashgaria 1895–1934 396
15.3 Trade between British-India and Chinese Turkestan via Leh, Gilgit and Chitral 1926–1946 399
15.4 Chitral-Yarkand trade via Baroghil Pass 407
15.5 Caravan trade via Baroghil and Dorah Pass 407
15.6 Share of charas in total Xinjiang exports 1895–1934 408
16.1 The wider Himalayan Arc consists of several mountain systems that are the region of yak breeding and keeping 427
18.1 Yak distribution in Western High Asia 453
18.2 Combined mountain agriculture 455
18.3 Classical mountain nomadism 455
18.4 Detached mountain pastoralism 456
18.5 Fencing as a tool for optimising pasture utilisation 457
18.6 Resettlement programmes in high pastures 458
18.7 Agro-pastoral resettlement scheme in lowland regions 458
18.8 The settlement of Subashi as the production brigade’s centre for infrastructural assets 462
18.9 The new resettlement scheme in Bulunkul 463
18.10 Recent transformations in pastoral strategies in Little Kara Köl Pamir 464
18.11 Yak-breeding station in Damshung 467
20.1 Modernisation has significantly affected pasture utilisation strategies 481
20.2 The Tibetan Plateau – embedded into Asian mountain systems 483
20.3 Combined mountain agriculture in the Yarlong Valley 484
20.4 Combined mountain agriculture 485
20.5 Classical mountain nomadism 486
20.6 Specialised pastoralists manage to utilise high pastures in the Karo La region (5,010m) 487
20.7 Detached mountain pastoralism 488
20.8 Resettlement in high pastures 489
20.9 Agro-pastoral resettlement 490
20.10 Three stages of collectivisation 492
20.11 Fencing as a tool in optimizing pasture utilisation 497
20.12 Pastoral settlement in Naqu Prefecture 498
20.13 Grass harvesting for winter fodder in Central Tibet 498
21.1 The Pamirs – high-altitude pastures and rangelands in an arid setting 506
21.2 Pastoral strategies in Central Asian mountain regions 507
21.3 Distribution and location of summer and winter pastures of the Kolchoz Murghab in the 1960s 515
21.4 Lenin Zholu – the way of Lenin – is still to be found as the name of the former collective farm in Rangkul 516
21.5 The status of autonomy prevails in the Tajik Taxkorgan Autonomous County 519
21.6 Transformation in pastoral strategies in Little Kara Köl Pamir 521
21.7 The settlement of Subashi as the production brigade’s centre for infrastructural assets 522
21.8 The new resettlement scheme in Bulunkul 523
21.9 Abdurrashid Khan (centre) and elders from various Kirghiz camps in Little Pamir 525
22.1 Comparison of nomadic strategies in pasture utilization with combined mountain agriculture 532
22.2 Yak-keeping in Western High Asia 533
23.1 Over centuries Wakhi migration was mainly directed eastwards. Some new settlements such as Baroghil were founded in close vicinity. A few abodes were created in Darkot. The main external settlement region is in Gojal with Gulmit as its centre. Mir Ali Mardan Shah founded a colony in exile in the Karambar Valley of Ishkoman. His brother Sarbuland Ali Shah was the head of Wakhi settlers in Sarikol and founded the village of Dafdar. The easternmost settlements of Wakhi are found in the Yarkand and Guma regions of Xinjiang where two remote colonies are located at the bottom of the Kilian and Sanju passes that are part of the Leh-Yarkand trade route 549
23.2 The so-called Burusho house features elements that are found in several house types in the Pamirian Crossroads; the storage room at the back of the house separates food preparation from sitting and sleeping, which take place on the platforms (man). The space close to the entrance is reserved for storage. The only opening for light is in the roof above the fireplace. The lantern roof ceiling is wide as well. In general, the Wakhi house is more spacious and differentiated than the Burusho house. The basic structure is similar, with a storage area opposite the entrance and separate food preparation on an elevated platform. At the sides the sleeping and sitting arrangements can be expanded towards the entrance side 551
23.3 The final outcome of Wakhan’s division and the delineation of the international boundaries are based on the Granville-Gorchakov Memorandum of 1872–73 and the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895. The southern part came under the control of the Afghan King within Badakhshan province while the northern part was taken by Russia. Subsequently, this part was addressed as Rajon Ishkashim within Gorno-Badakhshan. Both territorial units have remained as such until today. The important result is the function of Wakhan Woluswali as a buffer zone separating the Russian and British spheres of influences that do not touch each other in any place along the border. The easternmost portion of the international boundary is connecting with China 557
23.4 The central Wakhi village is characterised by the remnants of a residence of the Mir of Hunza that was visited in former times when the ruler (tham) spent some time in Gulmit in autumn for hunting. The houses of the leading families are found in its vicinity. From this nuclear settlement an expansion into filial hamlets has taken place. The new settlement of Chaman Gul is the latest and fastest growing hamlet, featuring a huge jamáatkhana that was inaugurated in July 2017. Many households from Gulmit have built houses and cultivated new terraces. Some people refer to Chaman Gul as the ‘New Gulmit’ where affluent young families have found a place to live. After the regulation of Atabad Lake, the reconstruction of the Karakoram Highway along a slightly changed alignment and a new major Chinese bridge connecting Shishket and Gulmit, some of the lost land could be reclaimed as is shown in the map 569
24.1 Map illustrating the languages spoken beyond the North-Western Frontier of British India; published by George A. Grierson 577
24.2 Comparison of major language groups 581
24.3 The Pamir-Hindukush-Karakoram interface: Linguistic diversity and regional patterns 583
25.1 Linguistic diversity of Western High Asia 600
25.2 District-wise language composition 601
25.3 Comparison of major language groups: Gilgit & Ghizer 1951 and 1991 605
25.4a Linguistic diversity in Ishkoman in 1906 609
25.4b Linguistic diversity in Ishkoman in 1991 611
25.5 Linguistic diversity, origin of traders and business structure in Gilgit Bazaar 615
26.1 National Parks and Nature Reserves in the Pamirian Crossroads 626
26.2 The proposed Pamir International Peace Park 631
27.1 Alexandrovka and Chapel Hill in 2021 635
27.2 Map of Alexandrovka Colony 1827 636
27.3 The landscape plan for Alexandrovka by Peter Joseph Lenné 1826 637
27.4 Alexander-Nevsky Chapel. The lithography of the chapel and the surrounding wooden houses is one of Alexandrovka’s early drawings by Carl Johann Philipp von Motz, most probably from 1829 639
27.5 The Alexander Nevsky Chapel in Alexandrowka as it was drawn and published in 1833 640
27.6 A Russian house in Alexandrowka as it was drawn and published in 1833 640
27.7 Location map of Alexandrowka. The northern part in dark grey is Chapel Hill with the Alexander Nevsky Chapel (1) in its centre. The tea-house (2) is located northeast of the chapel surrounded by an open field. The hippodrome shaped southern part contains 12 houses and the supervisor’s house (3), which is centrally located along the main axes, just north of the intersection of the Saint Andrew’s Cross. Twelve houses (4–15) of two different sizes are located on the sides and on the semicircles of the hippodrome. Successors of the original settlers (in the map numbers 9 and 15) occupy the houses number 7 and 11 (original numbering); see Altenburg (2004: 129–138); Museum Alexandrowka (2005: 94–100; 138–151). The westernmost house in the centre (2) has nowadays been featuring a local museum. Within the premises of the hippodrome, the orchards have been replanted with about 600 different fruit samples to resemble the historical experimental varieties. Thus, the reconstruction and preservation concept accommodated and took into account Alexandrovka’s additional function as a contemporary modern agricultural showpiece during the first quarter of the 19th century 642
27.8 Alexander Nevsky Chapel 643
27.9 Wooden house in Alexandrovka 644
27.10 Alexandrovka, House No. 6 645
28.1 Tsho Rolpa Lake in the Tama Koshi Basin, Nepal. The more than 200m high moraine that controls the outflow of the lake demonstrates the imminent danger of a spillover after a major event (rockfall, landslide, mud-flow, snow avalanche or ice-fall). 651
28.2 The Tsho Rolpa gated outlet channel is the result of a development project with participation by the Netherlands, Nepal, and the World Bank. It contributed to the lowering of the water level by 3.5 metres. 652
28.3 The early warning system in Rolwaling Khola was established for one million USD from the World Bank in the late 1990s and completely failed a few years later. Until today – nearly a decade later – no stakeholder has been interested in repairing or using it; parts have been removed and used for other purposes. Photograph in Beding village, Rolwaling 653
28.4 Winter camp with goat and sheep herds of ‘landless pastoralists’ (ajar) before they return to the high pastures of the Swat Valley. Photograph in Mirpur, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan 655
28.5 Yak distribution in High Asia as conceived by Qi Xuebin (2004) 656
29.1 Islamabad-Rawalpindi: Land Use and Development of Settlements 667
29.2 Population growth in Islamabad 667
29.3 Social hierarchy in government housing units, private and functional structure in Sector G-6 670
29.4 Location of the katchi abadi in Islamabad 674
29.5 France Colony (F-7/4) 675
29.6 Muslim Colony: Settlement and Housing Plot Structure 675
29.7 Incomes of households in selected katchi abadi in Islamabad 2000 676
29.8 Comparison between informal settlement and new planning in the katchi abadi of G-7/1 677
30.1 Interrelationship and structure of household income sources in Karakoram settlements 685
30.2 Important trade routes between Central Asia and British India in 1935 686
30.3 Karakoram Highway as the major link between down-country Pakistan, Gilgit-Baltistan, and China 689
30.4 Development of hotel industry in Karimabad and Hunza 1979–2009 693
30.6 Domestic tourist inflow in Gilgit-Baltistan 2008 694
30.5 Accommodation facilities in Gilgit-Baltistan 2008 694
30.7 Foreign tourist inflow in Northern Areas 2008 695
30.8 Visitors to Baltit Fort 1996–2009 697
30.10 Foreign visitors to Baltit Fort 2001–2009 698
30.9 Income and expenditure of Baltit Fort 698
30.11 Karimabad Bazaar 1984 700
30.12 Karimabad Bazaar 2006 701
30.13 Rehabilitation projects in Khaplu (AKCSP) 708
30.14 District-wise language composition in Gilgit-Baltistan and Chitral 717
30.15 GBC – Gilgit-Baltistan and Chitral 719
30.16 Crossing Atabad Lake by boat. The photograph was taken on August 26, 2013 721