1.1 The Persian hordes marching south into the Greek peninsula in front of the tent of King Xerxes in The 300 Spartans (1962, dir. Rudolph Maté). Image from the Michalis Nikolinakos archive. Published with permission from Nikos Nikolinakos 6
1.2 Wounded Greek soldiers. Screen capture from The 300 Spartans (1962, dir. Rudolph Maté) 13
1.3 Publicity photograph of Richard Burton for The Robe (1953, dir. Henry Koster). Image from the personal collection of Konstantinos P. Nikoloutsos 14
1.4 Maximus (Russell Crowe) fights in the mud during the initial battle scene. Screen capture from Gladiator (2000, dir. Ridley Scott) 15
1.5 Poster made by Leopoldo Metlicovitz for Cabiria (1914, dir. Giovanni Pastrone). Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0. Image in the public domain 27
2.1–2.2 Commander giving the order to advance and subsequent infantry charge. Screen captures from Alexander Nevsky (1938, dir. Sergei Eisenstein) 44
2.3–2.4 Scipio addressing the army and discussing tactical deployment with officers. Screen captures from Scipione l’africano (1937, dir. Carmine Gallone) 45
2.5 Army of Crassus advancing in the quincunx formation. Screen capture from Spartacus (1960, dir. Stanley Kubrick) 48
2.6 Officers in Caesar’s army after the victory at Pharsalus. Screen capture from Cleopatra (1963, dir. Joseph Mankiewicz) 50
2.7 Combat between Caesar’s soldiers and those of Ptolemy in Alexandria. Screen capture from Cleopatra (1963, dir. Joseph Mankiewicz) 51
2.8 Roman army marching into the forest. Screen capture from The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964, dir. Anthony Mann) 52
2.9 Roman army being ambushed by “barbarians.” Screen capture from The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964, dir. Anthony Mann) 52
2.10 Romans fighting “barbarians” in a cave. Screen capture from The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964, dir. Anthony Mann) 53
2.11 Soldiers forming a square arena to contain the combat between Livius and Commodus. Screen capture from The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964, dir. Anthony Mann) 54
2.12 Guards whose vertical pila mirror the bars of the cage opposite them. Screen capture from Spartacus (1960, dir. Stanley Kubrick) 55
2.13 Opening battle scene between the Romans and Germans. Screen capture from Gladiator (2000, dir. Ridley Scott) 56
2.14 Roman soldiers forming a testudo-like battleline. Screen capture from Gladiator (2000, dir. Ridley Scott) 57
2.15 Pseudo-testudo formed by the gladiators led by Maximus. Screen capture from Gladiator (2000, dir. Ridley Scott) 58
2.16 Tightly packed gladiators, in the center of the arena, led by Maximus. Screen capture from Gladiator (2000, dir. Ridley Scott) 58
2.17 Roman encampment. Screen capture from Centurion (2010, dir. Neil Marshall) 59
2.18 Roman encampment. Screen capture from Gladiator (2000, dir. Ridley Scott) 59
2.19 Pictish encampment/village. Screen capture from Centurion (2010, dir. Neil Marshall) 60
2.20 Roman army marching into the forest. Screen capture from Centurion (2010, dir. Neil Marshall) 60
2.21 Roman army being ambushed by “barbarians.” Screen capture from Centurion (2010, dir. Neil Marshall) 61
2.22 Romans fleeing from “barbarians.” Screen capture from Centurion (2010, dir. Neil Marshall) 61
2.23 Hadrian’s Wall. Screen capture from Centurion (2010, dir. Neil Marshall) 62
2.24 Marcus addressing Roman soldiers in formation. Screen capture from The Eagle (2011, dir. Jeremy Brock) 63
2.25 Disorganized “barbarians” assaulting the testudo formation of the Romans. Screen capture from The Eagle (2011, dir. Jeremy Brock) 63
2.26 Disorganized “barbarians” assaulting the battleline of the Romans. Screen capture from The Eagle (2011, dir. Jeremy Brock) 64
2.27 Portonaccio sarcophagus, Rome, Palazzo Massimo (Museo Nazionale Romano). Photograph by Jeremy Armstrong 67
4.1 “Hail! ‘The Sign of the Cross’” Imagery from Paramount Punch, 22 February 1933, 2 and 12 October 1934, 4. Courtesy of the Media History Digital Library 101
4.2 Nero (Charles Laughton) flanked by his naked manservant and Poppaea (Claudette Colbert). Screen capture from The Sign of the Cross (1933, dir. Cecil B. DeMille) 107
4.3 Cleopatra “triumphantly conquering Caesar” in The New Movie Magazine, May 1934. Courtesy of the Media History Digital Library 111
4.4 Warren William and Claudette Colbert in Modern Screen, July 1934. Courtesy of the Media History Digital Library 112
4.5 Photo spread in Hollywood, August 1934. Courtesy of the Media History Digital Library 115
4.6 A sword strikes Marc Antony/Henry Wilcoxon’s thigh. Movie Classic, September 1934 (detail). Courtesy of the Media History Digital Library 119
4.7 Visualizing Henry Wilcoxon’s youthful derring-do in The Hollywood Reporter, 12 February 1934 (detail). Courtesy of the Media History Digital Library 121
4.8 Cleopatra (Claudette Colbert) and Marc Antony (Henry Wilcoxon) superimposed over the Battle of Actium. Screen capture from Cleopatra (1934, dir. Cecil B. DeMille) 122
4.9 Henry Wilcoxon as Marc Antony attempting to rally his forces. Screen capture from Cleopatra (1934, dir. Cecil B. DeMille) 123
4.10 Motion Picture Herald, 25 February 1933, 88. Courtesy of the Media History Digital Library 125
5.1 Alexander (Richard Burton) cutting the Gordian Knot in Alexander the Great (1956, dir. Robert Rossen). Image from the personal collection of Konstantinos P. Nikoloutsos 144
5.2 Richard Burton posing alongside an ancient plaque of Alexander the Great. Published with permission from the Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research 149
5.3 Alexander (Richard Burton) surrounded by his soldiers in Alexander the Great (1956, dir. Robert Rossen). Published with permission from the Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research 156
6.1 Achilles (Brad Pitt). Screen capture from Troy (2004, dir. Wolfgang Petersen) 176
6.2 Hercules (Dwayne Johnson) against the Nemean lion. Screen capture from Hercules (2014, dir. Brett Ratner) 182
7.1 Atalanta (Olga Sosnovska) and Jason (Jason London) practice archery. Screen capture from Jason and the Argonauts (2000, dir. Nick Willing) 201
7.2 Atalanta (Ingrid Bolsø Berdal) in battle among Hercules’ men. Screen capture from Hercules (2014, dir. Brett Ratner) 209
8.1 Sauromatian warriors. Screen capture from The Legend of Tomiris (2019, dir. Akan Satayev) 230
8.2 Tomyris marching against the Persians. Screen capture from The Legend of Tomiris (2019, dir. Akan Satayev) 231
8.3 Boudica fighting on her chariot. Still from Boudica, Warrior Queen (2003, dir. Bill Anderson). © Alamy. Published with permission 232
8.4 Artemisia with gothic makeup and fishnet stockings during the final battle. Screen capture from 300: Rise of an Empire (2014, dir. Noam Munro) 235
10.1 Cassandra (Genevieve Bujold) brandishes her burning torch. Still from The Trojan Women (1971, dir. Michael Cacoyannis). Published with permission from the Michael Cacoyannis Foundation 277
10.2 Electra (Eva Kotamanidou) confronts the camera. Screen capture from The Traveling Players [Greek Title:
11.1 Hannibal after crossing the Alps into Italy. Screen capture from Cabiria (1914, dir. Giovanni Pastrone) 305
11.2 Roman fleet at Syracuse on fire from Archimedes’ mirrors. Screen capture from Cabiria (1914, dir. Giovanni Pastrone) 306
11.3 Roman siege basket overturned at Cirta. Screen capture from Cabiria (1914, dir. Giovanni Pastrone) 308
11.4 Cavalry clash. Screen capture from Scipio l’africano (1914, dir. Carmine Gallone) reused in Sikandar (1941, dir. Sohrab Modi) 313
11.5 Cavalry charge. Screen capture from Scipio l’africano (1914, dir. Carmine Gallone) reused in Sikandar (1941, dir. Sohrab Modi) 314
11.6 Cavalry charge. Screen capture from Cartagine in fiamme (1960, dir. Carmine Gallone) 318
11.7 Cavalry duel. Screen capture from Cartagine in fiamme (1960, dir. Carmine Gallone) 318
11.8 Cavalry duel. Screen capture from Cartagine in fiamme (1960, dir. Carmine Gallone) 319
12.1 Alexander (Colin Farrell) mounted on Bucephalus confronts the Indian king (Bin Banluerit) at the Battle of Hydaspes. Screen capture from Alexander (2004, dir. Oliver Stone) 337
12.2 The “Porus Medallion,” a silver coin struck in Mesopotamia, possibly in Alexander’s lifetime, celebrates his victory over King Porus. Copyright: The British Museum. Published with permission 338
14.1 Promotional poster with acoustic references for Maciste in the Valley of the Thundering Echoes [Italian title: La valle dell’eco tonante] (1964, dir. T. Boccia). Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0. Image in the public domain 395
14.2 Promotional poster with acoustic references for Goliath and the Barbarians [Italian title: Il terrore dei barbari] (1959, dir. Carlo Campogalliani). Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0. Image in the public domain 396
15.1 Julius Caesar’s suicide. Screen capture from Satyricon (1969, dir. Federico Fellini) 415
15.2 Julius Caesar’s body, pierced through by soldiers’ spears. Screen capture from Satyricon (1969, dir. Federico Fellini) 415
15.3 Roman soldier’s scarred face. Screen capture from Fellini-Satyricon (1969, dir. Federico Fellini) 417
15.4 Roman soldiers in Licas’ ship. Screen capture from Fellini-Satyricon (1969, dir. Federico Fellini) 417
15.5 Dead bodies in the triumph scene. Screen capture from Fellini-Satyricon (1969, dir. Federico Fellini) 418
15.6 Destroyed monuments in the triumph scene. Screen capture from Fellini-Satyricon (1969, dir. Federico Fellini) 418
15.7 Scarred soldiers, smoke and dust in the triumph scene. Screen capture from Fellini-Satyricon (1969, dir. Federico Fellini) 419
16.1 Roman soldiers smother and overwhelm the barbarians within the constricted space of a cave. Screen capture from The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964, dir. Anthony Mann) 442
16.2 Soldiers stack their shields to form a combat arena for Commodus and Livius. Screen capture from The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964, dir. Anthony Mann) 443
16.3 An elevated tracking shot follows US infantry on Omaha beach. Screen capture from The Longest Day (1962, dir. Ken Annakin, Andrew Marton, Bernhard Wicki) 444
16.4 The Free French assault on Ouistreham is depicted in a traveling shot recorded from a helicopter. Screen capture from The Longest Day (1962, dir. dir. Ken Annakin, Andrew Marton, Bernhard Wicki) 445
17.1 Lysistrata (Jenny Karezi) is giving a speech from atop her headquarters. Screen capture from Lysistrata (1972, dir. Yorgos Zervoulakos) 468
20.1–3 Zealots. Screen captures from Risen (2016, dir. Kevin Reynolds) 540
20.4 Roman legionaries. Screen capture from Ben-Hur (2016, dir. Timur Bekmambetov) 549