1 Introduction
The âMyth of Baldrâs Death,â one of the most famous mythological narratives of pre-Christian Scandinavia,1 is attested by a number of Old Norse texts composed in the Middle Ages, including the Eddic poems VÇ«luspá (31â33; Vsp.), Baldrs draumar (passim), and Lokasenna (27â28), as well as the section Gylfaginning (49; Gylf.) of Snorri Sturlusonâs Prose Edda. The plot elements that are essential to this study may be summarized as follows:
The god Baldr, son of Odin and Frigg, is so bright that light shines from him. His wife is Nanna Neps-dóttir âdaughter of Nepr/Nefr.â While playing a game with the other gods, Baldr is unintentionally killed with a mistletoe twig by the blind god Hǫðr, who is maneuvered by the mischievous god Loki. Confused and perplexed by Baldrâs death, the gods send Hermóðr to search for Baldr. He finds him in the Realm of the Dead. In order to bring Baldr back to life, every creature of the world has to weep for his death. When this fails, Baldr is forced to stay among the dead until the End of Time.
As is well known, a variant of the same tradition also occurs in Latin, in the form of a heroic legend, within Saxo Grammaticusâs Gesta Danorum (3.1â4; Saxo),2 whose account of the death of âBalderusâ exhibits both differences and similarities with the Eddic version (as one would expect in dealing with texts of very different genres composed in very diverse contexts). The plot details that are most relevant to us are the following:
The demigod Balderus (Baldr), son of Othinus (Odin), desires the maiden Nanna, daughter of Gevarus, after having spied on her while she was bathing. Balderus woos Nanna. She refuses him, as she loves her adoptive brother Høtherus (Hǫðr), who loves her back and decides to kill Balderus. After several vicissitudes, Høtherus pierces Balderus with his sword. Balderus dies.
Among the features that occur in both versions of the myth, two particularly important figures are Nanna, the female character married to or desired by Baldr, and Hǫðr, Baldrâs murderer:
The name Nanna, identical to the ON poetic term nanna (discussed infra, §â¯2), has been analyzed either as a Lallwort meaning âwoman, maidenâ (of the type of dialectal Swedish nanna âmotherâ and Ved. nanÄÌ- âid.â; Henning 1908:478â479; de Vries 1962 s.v.; cf. Liberman 2016:207; 239) or as a reflex of PGmc. *nanþ-Å(n)- âshe, the brave oneâ (de Vries 1956â1957: II.222â223),3 a derivative of the root *nenþ- âdare, striveâ (Goth. anananþjan âto dareâ, ON nenna âto striveâ, OE nÄðan âto dareâ; Seebold 1970:359). Nanna is the only Norse goddess who, in Snorriâs Edda, is consistently referred to using both her name and her patronymic4 Neps-dóttir âdaughter of N.â, the first element of which is the genitive of the etymologically unclear (de Vries 1962 s.v. Nepr) theonym Nepr or Nefr (both nominative forms are attested, cf. Lind 1905â1915 s.v.); the name of Nannaâs father in Saxoâs Latin version, Gevarus, is of unclear origin and will not be discussed here.
The name Hǫðr has been connected to the rare ON feminine hǫð âbattleâ (de Vries 1955:49; mostly occurring as the first element of onomastic compounds of the type of Hǫð-broddr), i.e., the outcome of PGmc. *haþu- âid.â (OE Heaðo°, OHG Hadu°), which may in turn be traced back to a PIE formation *Æótu- âhostilityâ (ultimately reflected by Hitt. kattau̯Ätar âid.â as well);5 such semantics, however, finds no support in the textual evidence, where Hǫðr is rather described as a blind character who is vápnlauss âweaponlessâ and unable to hit Baldr by himself (Gylf. 49).
In the present contribution, I propose to identify the âMyth of Baldrâs Deathâ as a Norse counterpart to the Vedic âMyth of the Wounded Sun,â a mythological narrative already attested in the Rigveda (RV; Indiaâs oldest collection of sacred scriptures, last half of the 2nd millennium BCE), which has been reconstructed in detail by Stephanie W. Jamison (1991:133â303):6
Father Sky or the Sun7 desires or even rapes the maiden Uá¹£as âDawnâ, his own daughter. As a punishment for this sin, he is pierced âwith darknessâ (possibly referring to smoke) by the fire god Agni (called Rudra or SvarbhÄnu Äsura). The Sun falls from the heaven. As all living beings are confused and perplexed, the gods send Atri to find the Sun. Atri succeeds and restores cosmic order.
This claim will be substantiated by novel formal analyses and semantic interpretations of the name and patronymic Nanna Nepsdóttir and of the theonym Hǫðr, proposals that find support in several onomastic, lexical, and phraseological parallels in other IE traditions. To this purpose, firstly, the synchronic meaning of ON Nanna will be established as âMaidenâ and the first element of ON Neps-dóttir traced back to PIE *nébh-os-/-es- âsky; cloudâ (§â¯2), supporting the interpretation of Nanna Nepsdóttir as the Germanic reflex of an inherited collocation [maidenâ[skyâsâdaughter]] which may be reconstructed on the basis of Greek, Vedic, and Baltic evidence (§â¯3). Secondly, ON Hǫðr will be analyzed as a reflex of PIE *kót-u-/két-u̯- âconcealment, darknessâ, a derivative of the root *(s)ket- âconcealâ whose meaning matches this godâs epithets and characterization in myth (§â¯4) and whose reconstruction is supported by parallels in Germanic, Celtic, and (possibly) Indo-Aryan (§â¯5). Finally, on the strength of these analyses, I will advance a new interpretation of the Norse âMyth of Baldrâs Death,â discuss its parallels with the Vedic âMyth of the Wounded Sun,â and reconstruct an inherited IE âMyth of the Piercing of a Light-Godâ (§â¯6).
2 ON Nanna as âMaidenâ and ON Nefr as Reflex of PIE *nébh-os-/-es- âSkyâ
Let us first turn our attention to the two formations associated with the character married to or desired by Baldr, namely (a) the name Nanna and (b) the patronymic Nepsdóttir.
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From a synchronic perspective (whatever its origin may be), the ON hapax nanna means âmaidenâ in Eddic poetry:
Vsp. 309â12
nú ero talðar
nǫnnor Herians,
gorvar at rÃða
grund, valkyrior
Now are listed the maidens of Herjann (= Odin), ready to ride over the earth, the valkyries.
Given that, as is well known, the valkyries are consistently described as âmaidensâ in the Edda,8 that ON Herjann is one of Odinâs names,9 and that [maidenâof Odin] is a kenning for [valkyrie],10 the meaning of the appellative nanna may be established as âmaiden.â11
It may thus be assumed that the ON theonym Nanna would have been synchronically interpreted as âMaidenâ as well. Significantly, in Saxoâs Gesta Danorum Nanna is indeed portrayed as a young maiden and referred to as virgo âmaidenâ and puella âid.â:
Saxo 3.2.2
Tot iuuenis artibus [â¦] Nanna admodum delectata amplexum eius expetere coepit. Fit enim, ut uirtute iuuenum uirgines incalescant
Nanna was much taken by the youthâs many accomplishments and began to seek his embraces. Maidens warm to young menâs prowess.
Saxo 3.2.9[â¦] exquisitis uerborum delenimentis puellam aggressus [â¦]
Having addressed himself to the maiden (Nanna) with carefully considered inducements â¦
To sum up: ON Nanna is likely to have been synchronically interpreted as âMaidenâ, whereas ON Nefr may be analyzed as the expected outcome of PIE *nébh-os-/-es- âsky; cloud.â As we shall see in the following section, close semantic correspondences in various IE traditions support this analysis.
3 The Maiden Who Is the Daughter of the Sky
Of the two meanings mainly attested by the reflexes of PIE *nébh-os-/-es-, âSkyâ is the most attractive option for ON Nefr, as it allows for an interpretation of Nanna Neps-dóttir as âMaiden Skyâs-daughterâ, the reflex of an inherited formulaic collocation [maidenâ[skyâsâdaughter (*dhugh2tér-)], which may be reconstructed on the basis of (1) Greek, (2) Vedic, and (3) Baltic evidence:
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Greek: Persephone, the
Îá½¹Ïη âMaidenâ who isÎÎ¹á½¸Ï Î¸Ï Î³á½±ÏÎ·Ï âdaughter of Zeusâ (PIE *di̯éu̯- âskyâ)-
The Greek goddess Persephone is almost always referred to as
Îá½¹Ïη âMaidenâ in Attic cult inscriptions and is often described asκούÏη âmaidenâ in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (e.g., 8; 27; 66; cf. Richardson 1974:294). -
Her patronymic is
ÎÎ¹á½¸Ï Î¸Ï Î³á½±ÏÎ·Ï âdaughter of Zeusâ (e.g., Od. 11.217), a possible reflex of a collocation [skyâs (*di̯éu̯-)âdaughter (*dhugh2tér-)], given that, as is well known, Gk.ÎÎµá½»Ï (gen.Îι á½¹Ï ) andÎ¸Ï Î³á½±ÏÎ·Ï âdaughterâ are reflexes of PIE *di̯éu̯-/diu̯-´ âsky(-god)â (Ved. dyáv- âid.â, Lat. Iouis âid.â) and *dhugh2tér- âdaughterâ, respectively (cf., e.g., Beekes 2010 s.vv.).
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As argued by Michael Janda (2000:153â157; 174â176), the mythology of Persephone may (at least partially) reflect inherited features of the PIE [dawn]-goddess. This leads us to our second parallel: the Vedic [dawn]-goddess.
The parallel between Ved. divó duhitár- and Persephoneâs patronymic was first noted by Janda (2000:153â154). The exact etymological match of the Vedic formula with the identical patronymic
As is well known, Lith. Diẽvas âGodâ and duktÄÌ/dukrýtÄ âdaughterâ are reflexes of PIE *dei̯u̯-ó- âthe heavenly one, godâ (Lat. deus âgodâ, Ved. devá- âid.â), a vrÌ¥ddhi derivative of *di̯éu̯-, âskyâ, and *dhugh2tér- âdaughterâ, respectively: the patronymic Diẽvo duktÄÌ/dukrýtÄ has thus been recognized as a further possible reflex of the PIE [dawn]-goddessâs formulaic epithet [skyâs (*di̯éu̯-)âdaughter (*dhugh2tér-)] (Euler 1987:44; cf. Schmitt 1967:173).
To sum up: the interpretations, advanced in the previous section (§â¯2), of (a) ON Nanna as âMaidenâ and (b) ON Nefr (gen. Neps°) as the expected outcome of PIE *nébh-os-/-es- âsky; cloudâ support an analysis of Nanna Neps-dóttir âMaiden Skyâs-daughterâ as the Germanic reflex of an IE collocation [maidenâ[skyâsâdaughter (*dhugh2tér-)]] with parallels in the names and epithets of the Greek goddess Persephone, who was referred to as (a)
Given that these Greek, Vedic, and Baltic female characters have all been analyzed as (at least partial) reflexes of the PIE [dawn]-goddess, of whom [skyâs (*di̯éu̯-)âdaughter (*dhugh2tér-)] was an exclusive traditional epithet, these parallels seem to point to a close association between this reconstructed mythological character and the complex collocation [maidenâ[skyâsâdaughter (*dhugh2tér-)]], and thus to a further identification of Nanna daughter of Nefr as a Germanic reflex of the PIE [dawn]-goddess.
4 ON Hǫðr as a Reflex of PIE *kót-u-/két-u̯- âConcealment, Darknessâ
Let us now turn our attention to the name of Baldrâs murderer, ON Hǫðr, the expected outcome of PGmc. *haþ-u-, which is likely to be an inherited formation (the suffix -u- was not productive in Proto-Germanic; Bammesberger 1990: 154ff.; Casaretto 2004:191). PGmc. *haþ-u- may thus be traced back to *kót-u-, the generalized strong stem of PIE *(s)kót-u-/két-u̯-, an acrostatic derivative of PIE *(s)ket- âconceal, coverâ, a root that may be reconstructed on the basis of, inter alia, Ved. cátant- âconcealing oneself, hidingâ and cÄtáya-te âto make (someone) hideâ, Gk.
(1) The blind god: Hǫðr, also known as blindi Ãs âthe blind, sightless godâ (Skáldskaparmál 13), is literally described as blindr âblind, sightlessâ in the Eddic tradition, cf., e.g., Gylf. 28 and the following passage of Baldrâs myth:
Gylf. 49[â¦] hann var blindr [â¦] âek sé eigi hvar Baldr er [â¦]â
[â¦] He (Hǫðr) was blind [â¦]. (He said:) âI see not where Baldr is [â¦]â
This characterization not only intuitively fits an interpretation of Hǫðr as âDarknessâ, but also antithetically parallels the conception of the Sun-god (the god of [light] par excellence) as âall-seeingâ attested in various IE (as well as not-IE) traditions (cf. West 2007:198), e.g., in Homeric Greek:
Il. 3.277 (cf. also Od. 11.109)á¼¨á½³Î»Î¹á½¹Ï Î¸ â,á½Ï Ïá½±Î½Ï âá¼ÏοÏá¾·Ï ÎºÎ±á½¶ Ïá½±Î½Ï âá¼ÏακούειÏ
And you Sun, who see all things and hear all things
It may be further noted that the adjective used to describe Hǫðr, ON blindr, is the reflex of PGmc. *blinda-, which originally meant not only âblindâ, but also âdark, concealedâ (EWA s.v. blint), a twofold semantics that is typologically common in IE, cf. Ved. andhá- âblind; darkâ and Lat. caecus âid.â
(2) The killer of the shining god: Hǫðr is referred to as Baldrs bani âkiller of Baldrâ (Skáldskaparmál 13; Baldrs draumar passim), a Norse god who is so closely associated with [light], that he is literally said to shine in the following passage (cf. also infra, §â¯6):
Gylf. 22[â¦] bjartr svá at lýsir af honum [â¦]
(Baldr is) so bright that light shines from him.
An interpretation of Hǫðr as âDarknessâ would thus suit his characterization as the mythical killer of the âbrightâ god Baldr, with a close IE parallel in Vedic mythology, in which, as we shall see further below (§â¯6), the Sun-god is wounded by means of támas- âdarkness.â A further conceptual parallel may be found, e.g., in Old Norse itself, which attests a poetic name for the [night] ó-ljós âthe not-bright oneâ (AlvÃssmál 304), whose first and second elements are the negative prefix ó° ânot, un-â and the adjective ljóss âbrightâ, respectively: just like [night] was referred to as the negation of brightness, the god Hǫðr âDarknessâ may have been regarded as the natural enemy of the brightest of the gods, Baldr.
5 Parallels for ON Hǫðr in Germanic and Other Indo-European Traditions
The analysis of ON Hǫðr as the reflex of PGmc. *haþ-u- and PIE *(s)kót-u-/két-u̯- âconcealment, darknessâ finds support in parallels both within Germanic (1â2) and in other IE traditions (3â4):
(1) PGmc. *skadwa- âshadowâ: PGmc. *skadwa- âshadowâ, reconstructed on the basis of Goth. skadus, OE sceadu, scead, OS skado, and OHG skato (Casaretto 2004:485),18 all meaning âshadowâ, may be the outcome of *skotu̯-ó-, a possessive derivative of PIE *(s)kót-u- âconcealment, darknessâ (ON Hǫðr), whose adjectival meaning âprovided with concealment, with darknessâ may have actually still been present in Proto-Germanic, as shown by the derivational history of Goth. *ga-skadw-jan:
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Goth. gaskadweins*, a verbal abstract that translates Gk.
ÏκέÏαÏμα âcoveringâ, presupposes an unattested verb *ga-skadw-jan âto coverâ (Casaretto 2004:353), a denominative formation whose expected meaning would have been âto shadeâ or âto become darkâ, if it had been derived from skadus âshadowâ, cf. ufar-skadw-jan âto shadeâ (cf. also riqiz-jan âto become darkâ, denominative to riqis âdarknessâ). -
In contrast, given that PGmc. -ja- verbs derived from adjectives were usually factitive (Ringe 2017:283), Goth. *ga-skadw-jan âto coverâ may easily be traced back to *(°)skadw-ja- âto make something concealedâ, a factitive derivative of the PGmc. adjective *skadw-a- âprovided with concealment, concealed, darkâ before it underwent the substantivization to âshadowâ attested by Goth. skadus and its Germanic cognates (a typologically unproblematic development, cf. English in the dark and German im Dunkel).
(2) Germanic parallels for PIE *ket-: The root variant without s-mobile *ket- of ON Hǫðr (PIE *kót-u-) may be further attested by the reflexes of PGmc. (a) *haþ-an-/hatt- âhatâ and (b) *hÅd-a- âhood, hatâ, both of which may ultimately be traced back to either a PIE action noun *(s)kót-o- âconcealment, darknessâ (of the type of Gk.
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PGmc. *haþ-an-/hattââhatâ: As argued by Rosemarie Lühr (2000:266) and Guus Kroonen (2011:304â306), a PGmc. noun *haþ-an-/hatt- âhatâ (acc. pl. *hatt-uns) may be reconstructed on the basis of ON hattr âhatâ (the outcome of *hatt-a-, thematization of the weak stem), as well as of ON hÇ«ttr, OE hæt, OFr. hat âhatâ (reflecting *hatt-u-, reanalyzed from the acc. pl., as if *hatt-u-ns). PGmc. *haþ-an-/hatt- âhatâ may in turn be the reflex of amphikinetic *kót-on-/-n-´, an individualizing -n- derivative that may have meant either âthe one of the concealing, of the darknessâ, if it was derived from the action noun *(s)kót-o- âconcealment, darknessâ (of the type of Lat. NÄsÅ, -Ånis âthe one of the noseâ from nÄsus ânoseâ), or âthe concealing oneâ, if from the agentive *(s)kot-ó- âconcealing, who/that concealsâ (of the type of Lat. CatÅ, -Ånis âthe sharp oneâ from catus âsharpâ).
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PGmc. *hÅd-a- âhood, hatâ: PGmc. *hÅd-a-, currently reconstructed on the basis of, e.g., OE hÅd âhoodâ, OHG huot âhood, hatâ, and OS hÅd âhatâ (Kroonen 2013 s.v. *hÅda-), may be traced back to PIE *kÅt-ó- âthe one pertaining to concealment, darknessâ, a vrÌ¥ddhi derivative of the action noun *(s)kót-o- âconcealment, darknessâ; an alternative (but less likely) interpretation would be âthe one pertaining to the concealing oneâ, if it was derived from agentive *(s)kot-ó- âthe concealing one.â
As noted, e.g., by Kroonen (2013 s.v.), PGmc. *hÅd-a- âhood, hatâ can hardly be kept apart from the family of OE hÄdan âto heed, take care, guardâ, OHG huoten âto guard, protect, custodire, observareâ, and OS hÅdian âto guard, take care ofâ, all of which allow for the reconstruction of a weak verb *hÅd-ja- âto protect.â Given that the semantic shift from PIE *kÅt-ó- âthe one pertaining to concealment, darknessâ to PGmc. *hÅd-a- âhood, hatâ is likely to have entailed an intermediate semantic stage âa covering of some kindâ, the verb *hÅd-ja- âto protectâ may have arisen from a denominative derivative originally meaning *âto make, provide with a coveringâ, of the type of *dÅm-ija- âto judgeâ (*âto make a judgementâ, from *dÅm-a- âjudgementâ) and *namn-ija- âto nameâ (*âto provide with a nameâ, from *nam-an-/-n- ânameâ),19 by means of a typologically unproblematic semantic development (cf., e.g., Italian proteggere âto protectâ from Lat. prÅ-tÄgÄre âto cover in frontâ).
Germanic languages thus provide us with evidence both for the PIE formation *(s)kót-u- âconcealment, darknessâ and for the s-less root variant *ket-. As anticipated above, further parallels for ON Hǫðr may be found, outside the Germanic family, in (3) Celtic and (4) Indo-Aryan:
(3) PCelt. *skÄtu-: A Proto-Celtic formation *skÄt-u- or *skÄt-o- has long been reconstructed on the basis of OIr. scáth âshadow, reflection, mirror, shelterâ, Welsh ysgawd âshadow, darknessâ, Cornish scod âshadowâ, and Breton skeud âshadow, image.â Among the several proposed analyses,20 a relatively recent one (Irslinger 2002:125â127) traces PCelt. *skÄtu- back to PIE *sÆeH-tu-/sÆH-téu̯-, an abstract formation of the root *sÆeH(i)- âgleam, shineâ (LIV2:546). This is, of course, possible, but, from a semantic perspective, a perhaps more attractive option is to trace PCelt. *skÄtu- back to earlier *skÅt-u- âthat which pertains to concealment, darknessâ, an internal derivative with lengthened grade of PIE *(s)kót-u- âconcealment, darknessâ (ON Hǫðr), of the type of, e.g., Hom.
An alternative possibility, supported by the attestation of the OIr. thematic gen. sg. scáith (LU 9060; cf. Irslinger 2002:126), which has even prompted an analysis of all Celtic formations as reflexes of thematic *skÅt-o- (as, e.g., in MatasoviÄ 2009:340), would be to trace PCelt. *skÄt-u- back to a merger between PIE *(s)kót-u- and the same vrÌ¥ddhi derivative *(s)kÅt-ó-, which underlies PGmc. *hÅd-a- as well (cf. supra [2]).22 According to this interpretation, the (quite heterogeneous) meanings attested by the reflexes of PCelt. *skÄt-u- (e.g., OIr. scáth âshadow, reflection, mirror, shelterâ) would reflect various developments of the (unsurprisingly vague) pertinentive semantics âthat which pertains to concealment, darknessâ of the original vrÌ¥ddhi formation.
(4) Ved. mÄmÌÅ-catú- âscaring off the moon, making the moon hideâ (?): A close, though highly problematic, match for ON Hǫðr and PIE *(s)kót-u- may be possibly identified in the Vedic hapax mÄmÌÅcatóḥ (RV 7.44.3c), which Hermann Grassmann (1873:1028) interpreted as the genitive singular of mÄmÌÅ-catú- âscaring off the moon, making the moon hideâ (from which the equally unclear mÄmÌÅcatvá-/mÄÌmÌÅcatva- in RV 9.97.52b, 54b would have been derived), a compound with a reflex of mÄÌs- âmoonâ (cf. Gk.
Given that (as discussed above) all these IE formations may be reflexes of the PIE root *(s)ket- âconcealâ, this interpretation would theoretically allow us to connect Ved. °cat-ú- to the weak stem *két-u̯- (Proto-Indo-Iranian *Äát-u̯-) of the PIE acrostatic -u- stem *(s)kót-u-/két-u̯- âconcealment, darknessâ reconstructed above for ON Hǫðr. Grassmann and Saussureâs formal analyses and semantic interpretations of the Vedic hapax, however, have been strongly challenged by later scholarship, a discussion of which would require a separate study.23 Among the most recent proposals, Georges-Jean Pinault (2008) has argued against a connection with cat âhideâ, whereas Stephanie W. Jamison (2019, ad 7.44.3; date of posting:12/8/2019) has championed it under a slightly different formal analysis. The question of the possible connection between ON Hǫðr and Ved. mÄmÌÅ-catú- must thus remain unanswered for the moment.
To sum up, the analysis of ON Hǫðr as a reflex of PIE *(s)kót-u-/két-u̯- âconcealment, darknessâ finds support in indirect parallels in the lexicon of Germanic (*skadw-a-, *haþ-an-/hatt-, *hÅd-a-) and Celtic (*skÄtu-), as well as in the possibly very close (though unfortunately problematic) match with Vedic °catú- âconcealingâ (if it reflects the weak stem *két-u̯-).
6 Norse and Vedic âMyths of the Piercing of a Light-Godâ
In the previous sections, I argued for new interpretations of ON Nanna Nepsdóttir as âMaiden Skyâs-daughterâ and of ON Hǫðr as âDarkness.â The insight obtained so far allows for (1) a novel analysis of the Norse âMyth of Baldrâs Death,â which enables us to recognize (2) a series of parallels in the Vedic âMyth of the Wounded Sun,â and thus to analyze both the Norse narrative and the Vedic one as reflexes of (3) an inherited IE âMyth of the Piercing of a Light-God.â
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The Norse âMyth of Baldrâs Deathâ
The elements of the Norse narrative that are crucial for this section are the following:
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The male protagonist is a god associated with [light], namely Baldr.
Gylf. 22
[â¦] Hann er svá fagr álitum ok bjartr svá at lýsir af honum [â¦]
He (Baldr) is so fair in appearance and so bright that light shines from him.
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Baldr is married to or desires Nanna âMaidenâ, the daughter of Nefr âSkyâ (*nébh-es-).
Gylf. 49
[â¦] kona hans Nanna Nepsdóttir [â¦]
His (Baldrâs) wife is Nanna daughter of Nefr.
Saxo 3.2.3â¯+â¯3.2.9
Accidit autem, ut Othini filius Balderus [â¦] infinito amore corriperetur.
+ [â¦] exquisitis verborum delenimentis puellam aggressus [â¦]
Now it happened that Balder, the son of Odin, was gripped by an unbounded passion.
+ [â¦] Having addressed himself to the maiden (Nanna) with carefully considered inducements â¦
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The maiden Nanna is spied upon by Baldr while she is bathing.
Saxo 3.2.3
Accidit autem, ut Othini filius Balderus Nanne corpus abluentis aspectu sollicitatus infinito amore corriperetur. [â¦]
Now it happened that Balder, the son of Odin, was stirred at the sight of Nannaâs body as she was bathing and then gripped by an unbounded passion.
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Baldr is [pierced] with a mistletoe by Hǫðr (*[s]kót-u- âDarknessâ), maneuvered like a puppet by Loki (who was originally a [fire]-god).24
Gylf. 49
[â¦] Hǫðr tók mistiltein ok skaut at Baldri at tilvÃsun Loka. Flaug skotit à gÇ«gnum hann ok fell hann dauðr til jarðar [â¦]
Hǫðr took the mistletoe and shot at Baldr at Lokiâs direction. The missile flew through him and he fell dead to the ground.
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After Baldr is pierced to death, all gods are confused and perplexed at first.
Gylf. 49
[â¦] Ãá er Baldr var fallinn þá fellusk Ç«llum Ãsum orðtÇ«k ok svá hendr at taka til hans [â¦] En er goðin vitkuðusk [â¦]
When Baldr had fallen, then all the godsâ tongues failed them, as did their hands for lifting him up. [â¦] And (later,) when the gods came to themselves â¦
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The gods send Hermóðr to search for Baldr. He succeeds in finding him.
Gylf. 49
[â¦] þá mælir Frigg ok spurði hverr sá væri með Ãsum er [â¦] vili hann rÃða á Helveg ok freista ef hann fái fundit Baldr [â¦]. En sá er nefndr Hermóðr inn hvati, sveinn Ãðins, er til þeirar farar varð. [â¦] sá þar sitja à ǫndugi Baldr [â¦]
Then Frigg spoke, and asked who there was among the Ãsir who [â¦] was willing to ride the road to Hel and try if he could find Baldr [â¦]. Hermóðr the Bold, Odinâs boy, is the name of the one who undertook this journey. [â¦] (After several vicissitudes, Hermóðr reached Helâs palace and) saw sitting there in the seat of honor Baldr.
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The male protagonist is a god associated with [light], namely Father Sky or the Sun.
RVÂ 1.71.5a
mahé yát pitrá īṠrásaṠdivé kár
When he made the sap [= semen] for great Father Heaven.
RVÂ 5.40.5a
yát tvÄ sÅ«rya súvarbhÄnuḥ
When, o Sun, SvarbhÄnu â¦
-
The male [light]-god desires or even rapes Dawn, the [maiden] who is [skyâsâdaughter].
RVÂ 10.61.5cd+7ab
púnas tád ÄÌ vrÌ¥hati yát kanÄÌyÄ , duhitúr ÄÌ Ã¡nubhrÌ¥tam anarvÄÌ [â¦]
pitÄÌ yát svÄÌá¹ duhitáram adhiá¹£kán , [â¦] saá¹jagmÄnáḥ [â¦]
Again he (Father Sky) tears out from the maiden, his daughter (Dawn), what had been âbrought to bearâ on herâhe the unassailable. [â¦] When the father âsprang onâ his own daughter, he, uniting (with her) [â¦]
RVÂ 1.115.2ab
sÅ«Ìryo devÄ«Ìm uṣásaá¹ rócamÄnÄm
máryo ná yóṣÄm abhà eti paÅcÄÌt
Sun approaches the gleaming goddess Dawn from behind, like a dashing youth a maiden.
-
Uá¹£as âDawnâ is described as a woman who is spied upon while she bathes.
RVÂ 5.80.5ab
eá¹£ÄÌ ÅubhrÄÌ ná tanúvo vidÄnÄÌ
Å«rdhvéva snÄtÄ«Ì drÌ¥Åáye no asthÄt
She, like a beauty who knows her body, has stood up erect like a bather for us to see.
-
The male [light]-god is [pierced] with támas- âdarknessâ by SvarbhÄnu Äsura, i.e. the god Agni âFire.â25
RVÂ 5.40.5ab
yát tvÄ sÅ«rya súvarbhÄnus
támasÄÌvidhyad Äsuráḥ
When, o Sun, SvarbhÄnu Äsura pierced you with darkness.
RVÂ 1.71.5cd
srÌ¥jád ástÄ dhr̥ṣatÄÌ didyúm asmai
svÄÌyÄá¹ devó duhitári tvÃá¹£iá¹ dhÄt
The archer (Agni) boldly loosed a missile at him (Father Heaven), (when) the god placed his âsparkâ in his own daughter.
-
After the male [light]-god is wounded, all living beings are confused and perplexed.
RVÂ 5.40.5cd
áká¹£etravid yáthÄ mugdhó
bhúvanÄni adÄ«dhayuḥ
Then like a befuddled man not knowing the territory did the living beings perceive.
-
The gods send Atri to search for the male [light]-god. Atri succeeds.
RVÂ 5.40.6cd
gÅ«lÌ¥háṠsÅ«Ìryaá¹ támasÄÌpavratena
turÄ«Ìyeá¹a bráhmaá¹Ävindad átriḥ
Atri with the fourth formulation found the sun, hidden by darkness because of (an act) contrary to commandment.
(3) IE âMyths of the Piercing of a Light-Godâ: comparison and reconstruction
The several parallels between the details of the Norse âMyth of Baldrâs Deathâ and the Vedic âMyth of the Wounded Sunâ allow for the assumption of a common origin for both and for the reconstruction of an inherited IE mythological structure:
-
The male protagonist is a god associated with [light].
-
The [light]-god desires (or is married to or rapes) a [maiden] who is [skyâsâdaughter].
-
The [maiden] is described as being seen while she is bathing.
-
The [light]-god is [pierced] (not just hit or slain) by a [fire]-god with the aid of [darkness] (either as a companion or a weapon).
-
After the [light]-god is [pierced], all gods and living beings in general are in a state of confusion.
-
The gods send a character to search for the [light]-god. The character succeeds in finding him.
If (as proposed above, §â¯3) the character of the [maiden] who is [skyâsâdaughter] in (b) must indeed be identified with the PIE [dawn]-goddess, the voyeuristic detail of her bath in (c) may reflect a typical feature of young female protagonists of IE solar myths (so-called âSun-maidensâ), who are often described as washing various objects or themselves in the sea or even drowning in it (Steets 1993:33; cf. further Nikolaev 2012:571â572).
As for the difference in (d) between the animacy of Baldrâs blind killer Hǫðr âDarknessâ, maneuvered by Loki (originally a [fire]-deity),26 and the inanimacy of the támas- âdarknessâ employed by the Vedic [fire]-god Agni to wound the Sun, this variation in the conceptualization of [darkness] (as either an animate god or an inanimate weapon) may reflect a phenomenon described by Calvert Watkins in his classic reconstruction of the basic formula of the IE dragon-slaying myth (1995): within the IE attestations of this myth, the specification of the companion and that of the weapon âare in complementary distribution; if one is present the other is almost obligatorily absentâ (Watkins 1995:361). The Norse narrative may thus reflect a version of the IE myth in which [darkness] was conceptualized as the companion of the [fire]-god in his deed,27 whereas the Vedic one may attest a variant in which [darkness] was construed as the weapon employed by the [fire]-god to pierce the [light]-god.
In any case, both the Norse and Vedic passages in (d) employ terms (ON flaug skotit à gÇ«gnum hann âthe missile flew through himâ and Ved. avidhyat âhe piercedâ),28 which imply [piercing], i.e. the penetration of the weapon into the godâs body, unlike, e.g., the root *gu̯hen- âslayâ typically attested by IE dragon-slaying myths (Watkins 1995: passim), which originally meant âhit repeatedlyâ (GarcÃa Ramón 1998), e.g., with a mace. It may be further noted that the causal nexus between the [light]-godâs desire for the [maiden] and his punishment by [piercing], which is attested in the Vedic myth and apparently absent in Snorriâs account of the Norse myth, has a close parallel in Saxoâs Latin version, in which Balderus is killed by Høtherus precisely because of his desire for Nanna, a correspondence that may support the reconstruction of this element for the IE mythical structure as well.
Further parallels for this inherited structure may be recognized in various IE mythical traditions that have been compared to the Norse and Vedic narratives, e.g., the Greek myth of the rape of Persephone29 (who, as argued supra [§â¯3], may be a further reflex of the [maiden] who is [skyâsâdaughter]) and the Irish myth of Balarâs killing by Lug;30 these correspondences will be pursued in future investigations.
7 Conclusion: Maiden, Skyâs Daughter, Darkness, and the IE âMyths of the Piercing of a Light-Godâ
The results of this study may be summarized as follows:
-
ON Nanna was synchronically interpreted as âMaidenâ (as the appellative nanna in Vsp. 30), an analysis supported by Nannaâs characterization within Saxoâs Gesta Danorum (e.g., 3.2.9 puellam agressus âhaving addressed himself to the maiden,â i.e. Nanna).
-
The nominative Nefr (the variant Nepr is analogical) and the genitive Neps° (the outcome of earlier *Nefrs) belong to the expected ON reflex (with generalization of the weak stem and regular thematization) of PGmc. *neb-az-/-iz- and PIE *nébh-os-/-es- âsky; cloudâ (Hitt. nepiÅ¡- âskyâ, Gk.
νέÏÎ¿Ï âcloudâ), with a possible etymological parallel in the Hittite theonym Nipas (if it is the reflex of *nébh-Ås âthe [personified] Skyâ). -
The interpretation of ON Nanna Neps-dóttir as âMaiden Skyâs-daughterâ has correspondences in names and epithets associated with the Greek goddess Persephone (the
Îá½¹Ïη âMaidenâ who isÎÎ¹á½¸Ï Î¸Ï Î³á½±ÏÎ·Ï âdaughter of Zeusâ;ÎÎµá½»Ï : PIE *di̯éu̯- âskyâ), with the Vedic goddess Uá¹£as âDawnâ (the kanÄÌ- âmaidenâ who is divó duhitár- âdaughter of the Skyâ; Ved. dyáv- âskyâ: PIE *di̯éu̯-), and with the Sun-goddesses of the Baltic traditions (called meita âmaidenâ in Latvian and Diẽvo duktÄÌ/dukrýtÄ âdaughter of Diẽvasâ in Lithuanian; Diẽvas âgodâ: PIE *dei̯u̯-ó- âthe heavenly oneâ). The parallels allow for the reconstruction of an underlying collocation [maidenâ[skyâsâdaughter (*dhugh2tér-)]], a formulaic epithet of the PIE [dawn]-goddess, of which Nanna may have been a Germanic reflex. -
ON Hǫðr (PGmc. *haþ-u-) is the reflex of *kót-u-, the generalized strong stem of PIE *(s)kót-u-/két-u̯- âconcealment, darknessâ, an acrostatic derivative of the root *(s)ket- âconcealâ (Ved. cátant- âconcealing himselfâ, Gk.
ÏκόÏÎ¿Ï âshadow, darknessâ). This reconstruction is supported by indirect parallels in the lexicon of Germanic (*skadw-a-, *haþ-an-/hatt-, *hÅd-a-) and Celtic (*skÄt-u-), as well as by a possibly exact (but highly problematic) match with Ved. (mÄmÌÅ-)catú- (if it is the reflex of the weak stem *két-u̯-). The interpretation of Hǫðr as âDarknessâ finds support in his epithets and characterization (as blindi Ãs âthe blind, sightless godâ and Baldrs bani âkiller of Baldr,â the god who shines), which point to an original association with [darkness] for this god. -
The proposed analyses of Nanna Nepsdóttir and Hǫðr allow for a new interpretation of the Norse âMyth of Baldrâs Death,â which has a series of parallels in the Vedic âMyth of the Wounded Sun.â On the basis of these correspondences, we may reconstruct the inherited narrative structure that underlies these IE âMyths of the Piercing of a Light-Godâ as follows:
A male god associated with [light] desires a [maiden], [skyâsâdaughter] (most probably the [dawn]-goddess), who is spied upon while she is bathing. After the male [light]-god is [pierced] by a [fire]-god (probably as a punishment for his desire) with the aid of [darkness] (construed as either an animate companion or an inanimate weapon), all gods and living beings in general are in a state of confusion. Therefore, they send out a character who searches for the [light]-god and eventually succeeds in finding him.
Acknowledgements
This publication is part of the project âSunSHINEâThe Sun-chariotâs Journey Towards the Nordic Sky: on the (Pre-)History of Ideas on Sky, Sun, and Sunlight in Northern Europe,â which has received funding from the European Unionâs Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie SkÅodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 890522.
For valuable criticism, discussion, and help with various aspects of this research, Iâd like to express my gratitude to Erica Biagetti, Andrea L. Covini, Paola Dardano, Pietro U. Dini, Peter Jackson Rova, Stephanie W. Jamison, Daniel Kölligan, Claire Le Feuvre, Angelo O. Mercado, Rostislav Oreshko, Patrick V. Stiles, and especially José L. GarcÃa Ramón. I am also very grateful to the editor of this volume, Laura Massetti, for her careful editing and insightful comments, as well as to Robert Tegethoff for improving my English version. Final responsibility remains my own.
The translations are adapted from Faulkes 1987 (Snorri), Friis-Jensen and Fisher 2015 (Saxo), and Jamison and Brereton 2014 (Rigveda). Passages from Snorriâs Edda are quoted on the basis of Faulkesâs (2005; 2007a; 2007b) normalized editions.
For an overview of the scholarship on Baldr and his mythology, cf., e.g., Liberman 2016:197â260.
A detail of this story is discussed by Stephanie Jamisonâs paper in this volume.
Possibly a feminine derivative of the formation *°nanþa- attested in onomastic compounds like, e.g., OE Beag-nÅþ and OHG Willi-nand (on which cf. Schramm 2013:149).
The only exception being Gylf. 1 (to the best of my knowledge), where the goddess Frigg has a patronymic FjÇ«rgvins-dóttir âdaughter of FjÇ«rgvinnâ, a detail which, however, is unlikely to reflect traditional Eddic material: in this euhemeristic passage, Snorri is tracing the origin of the Norse gods back to the deification of historical human beings and the patronymic was an integral part of the full name of a historical person in medieval Iceland.
On this lexical family, cf. most recently GarcÃa Ramón 2020. Aliter, e.g., Kroonen 2013 s.v. *haþu-.
On some IE (mostly Greek) comparanda for this myth, cf. also Jackson 2006:63â93; Janda 2014.
On the identical role of these two characters within the Vedic narrative, cf. Jamison 1991:294â295 and n. 286.
Cf., e.g., Helgakviða HjÇ«rvarðssonar 28 and Oddrúnargrátr 163 (both employing mær âmaidenâ).
On ON Herjann, cf., e.g., de Vries 1962 s.v.
Cf., e.g., the kennings Yggs drós âmaid of Yggrâ (Háttatal 501) and FjÇ«lnis mær âmaiden of FjÇ«lnirâ (Stephaniusâs Notæ uberiores, 79â80; Egeler 2011:48) for [valkyrie] (Yggr and FjÇ«lnir are names of Odin as well).
Aliter Pálsson 1996:77, according to whom this passage attests a poetic use of the feminine theonym Nanna to generally refer to the concept [woman]: this is a relatively frequent phenomenon in Skaldic poetry, but unparalleled within Eddic mythological poetry.
The type [Xgen.-dóttir] âdaughter of Xâ is still regular in Modern Icelandic, cf., e.g., the name of the linguist Guðrún Ãórhalls-dóttir âdaughter of Ãórhallur.â
A derivative of the verb refsa âto punishâ, cf. OE refsan âto reproveâ and OHG refsen âto punishâ (de Vries 1962 s.v.).
Cf., e.g., ON setr âseat, residence, abodeâ, outcome of *sitiÊ-a-, thematized reflex of the weak stem of PGmc. *set-az-/-iz- and PIE *séd-os-/-es- âid.â (Gk.
On this formation in general, see Stüber 2002:130â131; cf. also, inter alia, Kloekhorst 2008 s.v. nÄpiÅ¡-; EWAia s.v. nábhas-; Beekes 2010 s.v.
On this formula, further cf. Schmitt 1967:169â175; West 2007:186; Jackson 2002:79.
On the Vedic verbs, see Jamison 1983:113â114 and GotÅ 1987:132. The connection between all these IE formations, already proposed by Saussure (1922:113, n. 2), has been recently regarded (without much discussion) as âwenig ansprechendâ (EWAia s.v. CAT), cf. LIV2:357, which (citing EWAia) exclusively takes into account the Vedic formations and reconstructs the root as â*k(u̯)et- âentweichenââ¯â; the pure velar *k- and the s-mobile, however, are required by the Greek, Celtic, and Germanic formation, which, as argued in this contribution (infra, §â¯5), can all be analyzed as reflexes of this root on both formal and semantic grounds.
See also the secondary literature cited in Casaretto 2004:485, n. 1585. Aliter Lühr 2000:259; Neri 2003:330â332; Kroonen 2013 s.v. *skadu-.
On this type of derivatives, cf., e.g., Ringe 2017:284.
Cf. Irslinger 2002:126 for an overview and discussion of previous interpretations.
As noted by Darms (1978:113â116), an analysis of
For an example of a similar development in Old Irish, cf., e.g., Höfler 2014:315 on sÃd âfairy mound; peace.â
Cf. Pinault 2008 for a comprehensive overview of previous research on the topic; cf. also EWAia s.v. mÄmÌÅ-catú-.
The analysis of Loki as the Norse reflex of a [fire]-deity is supported, inter alia, by his association with the fireplace in Scandinavian folk traditions (Heide 2011), by archaeological findings (Gestsson 1961), and by the analysis of his myths both within their Scandinavian context (Ginevra 2018b) and in comparative IE perspective (Ginevra 2018a).
Jamison (1991:264â267) convincingly argues against the older interpretation of SvarbhÄnu as an âeclipse demonâ (on which cf., e.g., Schaffner 2010:126â129 with literature) and for his identification with Agni âFireâ.
It may be noted that in his account of the myth Snorri exclusively mentions Lokiâs punishment for Baldrâs death (cf. Lorenz 1984:565; Loki was called the ráðbani Baldrs âkiller of Baldr by plan,â Skáldskaparmál 16); Hǫðrâs punishment is, however, mentioned elsewhere, cf, e.g., Vsp. 33.
On this detail, see now Laura Massettiâs (2022) discussion of the IE background of Agniâs epithet aktór átithi- âguest of the night/at nightâ.
On the importance of the root vyadh within the Vedic myth, see Jamison 1991:142â144; 267â271; 299â300.
Already compared with Baldrâs myth by Sophus Bugge (1889:244â248); some parallels with the Vedic tradition were also noted in passing by Peter Jackson (2006:91â92). For comparative analyses of selected features of the Greek, Norse, and Vedic narratives, cf. Ginevra 2019; 2020a.
On whose parallels with the Norse myth of Baldr, cf. Rooth 1961:114ff.; Ginevra 2020b.
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