| Figures | ||
| 1.1 | Reconstructions of the Taung Child (Australopithecus africanus), and Drimolen infant (Homo erectus) | 11 |
| 1.2 | Population sizes, isotope record and key fossils from Southern Africa | 16 |
| 1.3 | Homo sapiens fossil crania >100 ka | 31 |
| 2.1 | Simplified stratigraphy of Laetoli after Harrison 2011 | 47 |
| 2.2 | Early Homo sapiens (LH18) from Laetoli | 48 |
| 2.3 | Map of Laetoli showing localities and area of fieldwork | 49 |
| 2.4 | Some of the artefacts retrieved from the Ngaloba Beds | 53 |
| 2.5 | MSA artefacts retrieved from the Ngaloba Beds | 54 |
| 3.1 | The better Iron Age cultural sequences in Central Africa. | 64 |
| 3.2 | Rainforests and woodlands today in Central Africa. | 65 |
| 3.3 | Palaeoenvironmental sequence of 90,000 years from Bambili lake, Cameroon | 66 |
| 3.4 | Spatial extension of the known Stone industries from West-Central Africa | 68 |
| 3.5 | Pleistocene stone industries of Central Africa | 69 |
| 3.6 | Holocene stone industries of Central Africa | 70 |
| 3.7 | Holocene Late Stone Age cultures and latest stone-using hunter-gatherers | 71 |
| 3.8 | Probable axes of expansion of the first villagers in Western-Central Africa | 75 |
| 3.9 | Pre-metallurgical villages’ expansion at 2,300 BP | 76 |
| 3.10 | Geographical location and chronology of archaeological sites with iron working evidence | 78 |
| 3.11 | Pottery from the Oveng and Kay Ladio Group | 78 |
| 3.12 | Map of the Okala Group sites, Gabon | 80 |
| 3.13 | Okala Group pottery, Gabon | 81 |
| 3.14 | Location map of the Oveng, Otoumbi, and Okanda Groups | 85 |
| 3.15 | Oveng Group pottery and burial | 87 |
| 3.16 | Position of the four cemeteries associated to the Oveng, Campo, and Akonetye Groups | 89 |
| 3.17 | Location map of Late Iron Age Groups in Gabon | 91 |
| 3.18 | Nanda Group pottery and iron artefacts from burials | 92 |
| 3.19 | Angondje Group pottery and other artefacts | 93 |
| 3.20 | Roulette decorated potsherds from Angondjé and Lopé Groups context | 95 |
| 4.1 | Cone-on-cylinder type houses | 112 |
| 4.2 | Map of Southern Africa showing Zimbabwe Culture sites | 118 |
| 4.3 | P PQ Q R wall construction styles after Whitty (1961) | 119 |
| 4.4 | The Great Enclosure (The Conservation Centre, Great Zimbabwe) | 126 |
| 4.5 | The Conical Tower (Image by Munyaradzi Elton Sagiya) | 127 |
| 4.6 | The Parallel Passage (Image by Munyaradzi Elton Sagiya) | 127 |
| 4.7 | Double chevron and monoliths (Image by Munyaradzi Elton Sagiya) | 128 |
| 4.8 | Artificial House Platform at Khami, western Zimbabwe; and artificial House Platform at Shangano site, north-western Zimbabwe | 129 |
| 4.9 | Nominal decoration at Mtoa, north-western Zimbabwe; and Lavish decoration at Naletale, central Zimbabwe | 130 |
| 4.10 | Interior and less visible decoration at Nsalansala and Shangangwe, central Zimbabwe | 131 |
| 4.11 | Solid dhaka walls at Khami site, western Zimbabwe | 132 |
| 4.12 | Structural arrangement of the Central Cattle Pattern | 135 |
| 5.1 | Map of Great Zimbabwe in Southern Africa. | 152 |
| 5.2 | Distribution of iron production sites in the wider Great Zimbabwe landscape | 154 |
| 5.3 | Archaeometallurgical materials from Chigaramboni site | 155 |
| 5.4 | Archaeometallurgical materials from Mashava site | 156 |
| 5.5 | A rectangular furnace base from Mutevedzi site | 158 |
| 5.6 | Multiple fused tuyeres, and single tuyere | 159 |
| 5.7 | A circular furnace base and double-fused tuyeres from Veza site | 161 |
| 5.8 | Double-fused tuyeres from Veza B site | 162 |
| 5.9 | Archaeometallurgical materials from Sviba site | 164 |
| 6.1 | Archaeological evidence for livestock in Southern Africa, 551 BC to AD 1058. | 178 |
| 6.2 | Map showing the distribution of modern east and Southern African populations screened for the East African LP allele -14010*C. | 194 |
| 6.3 | Map showing the distribution of the East African lactase persistence allele in Southern African. | 195 |
| 6.4 | Map showing Southern African populations with the highest prevalence of LP allele -14010*C. | 195 |
| 6.5 | Archaeological evidence for livestock-keeping with and without agriculture compared to the distribution of the lactase persistence allele. | 169 |
| 6.6 | Archaeological evidence for livestock-keeping at approximately 1200–1000 BP and the lactase persistence allele overlaid on the present-day distribution of African trypanosomiasis. | 196 |
| 7.1 | Locations and radiocarbon dates of the North African archaeological sites | 219 |
| 7.2 | Mitochondrial DNA phylogenetic tree including ancient samples from North Africa | 220 |
| 7.3 | Ancestry inference of ancient North African samples using principal component analysis | 223 |
| 8.1 | Modern-day and ancient genetic structure in Africa | 240 |
| 8.2 | Genetic affinities among sub-Saharan current-day and ancient individuals | 241 |
| 8.3 | Migration routes related to the expansion of herders and crop farmers during Holocene times | 243 |
| 8.4 | Genetic affinities among sub-Saharan current-day | 248 |
| 9.1 | Map of African showing the distribution of H3Africa projects | 258 |
| 9.2 | PMIDs of 317 publications associated to H3Africa | 260 |
| 9.3 | Summary of PubMed search and classification of H3Africa publications | 261 |
| 9.4 | Allocation of 169 core H3Africa publications to different subject areas | 262 |
| 9.5 | Wordgrams constructed using the text of the titles of the papers in six research categories | 285 |
| 10.1 | Estimated number of enslaved Africans disembarked on the Americas from 1501 to 1866 | 306 |
| 10.2 | Geographical location of the African-descendant populations described in this chapter | 310 |
| 10.3 | Continental admixture patterns estimated in African-descendant populations | 314 |
| 10.4 | Ancestry-specific principal component analysis (AS-PCA) for African haplotypes of Noir Marron and sub-Saharan African individuals | 315 |
| Tables | ||
| 1.1 | The known hominin sites of the Cradle of Humankind with numbers of fossil specimens | 13 |
| 1.2 | Key dated archaeological sites and fossil finds from ~500 ka to >350 ka | 18 |
| 1.3 | Key dated archaeological sites and fossil finds from ~350 ka to >250 ka | 21 |
| 1.4 | Key dated archaeological sites and fossil finds from ~250 ka to >150 ka | 25 |
| 1.5 | Key dated archaeological sites and fossil finds from ~150 ka to >50 ka | 27 |
| 2.1 | Summary of artefacts recovered from the survey | 51 |
| 2.2 | Summary of fossil bones recovered according to genera | 52 |
| 4.1 | Increased cattle herds against decreased small stock at nine Iron Age sites using both NISP and MNI (after Badenhorst, 2009) | 113 |
| 4.2 | Shangano site radiocarbon dates | 139 |
| 5.1 | Radiocarbon dates of charcoal samples from Great Zimbabwe | 165 |
| 5.2 | A summary of macroscopic attributes of slag samples | 170 |
| 6.1 | The frequency of the East African lactase persistence allele in Southern Africa | 181 |
| 6.2 | List of ethnographic and historic accounts of the consumption of milk amongst Southern African groups | 198 |
| 6.3 | Sites with pottery that fits Huffman’s (2007) western stream of demic diffusion among Bantu-language speaking farmers | 200 |
| 8.1 | Summary of genome-wide African ancient DNA studies published to date | 239 |
| 9.1 | Approaches and tools developed by H3ABioNet to address the challenges in genomics capacity development. | 276 |
List of Figures and Tables
In: Africa, the Cradle of Human Diversity
Editors:
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Cesar Fortes-Lima
Cesar Fortes-Lima
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Ezekia Mtetwa
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Carina Schlebusch
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