References are to pages
Treaties
Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of Canada on Air Quality (Ottawa) 13 March 1991, 30 ilm 676 (1991), in force 13 March 1991 69, 72
Agreement Concerning the Establishment of a Border Environment Cooperation Commission and a North American Development Bank (Mexico City) 18 November 1993, 32 ilm 1545 (1993), in force 1 January 1994 53, 54
Agreement Establishing the Asian Development Bank (Manila) 4 December 1965, 571 unts 123, in force 22 August 1966 (the adb Charter) 297, 299
Agreement Establishing the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (London), 29 May 1990, 29 ilm 1077 (1990), in force 28 March 1991 54, 61, 63–64, 69–70, 75, 77, 80, 82, 84, 299
Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin (Chiang Rai) 5 April 1995, in force the same day (the 1995 Agreement) 252–255, 285–286
Antarctic Treaty (Washington) 1 December 1959, 402 unts 71, 19 ilm 860 (1980), in force 23 June 1961 50 (see also Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty)
Association of South East Asian Nations Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (Kuala Lumpur) 9 July 1985, 15 epl 1964 (1985) 44
Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan) 23 March 1981, 20 ilm 746 (1981), in force 5 August 1984 42
Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of The Northeast Pacific (Antigua) 18 February 2002, not yet in force 43
Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena de Indias) 24 March 1983, 22 ilm 221 (1983), in force 11 October 1986 42
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacific (Lima) 12 November 1981, ielmt 981:85, in force 19 May 1986 42
Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (Noumea) 25 November 1986, 26 ilm 38 (1987), in force 22 August 1990 42
Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus) 25 June 1998, 38 ilm 517 (1999), in force 30 October 2001 (the Aarhus Convention) xiii, 44–45, 76–79, 87–88, 137, 218, 232, 236, 386
Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Vienna) 26 September 1986, 25 ilm 1377 (1986), 1457 unts 133, in force 26 February 1987 6
Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro) 5 June 1992, 31 ilm 822 (1992), in force 29 December 1993 (the cbd) 41, 46, 47, 49, 62, 66, 79, 83, 121, 261
Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Vienna) 26 September 1986, 25 ilm 1370 (1986), 1439 unts 275, in force 27 October 1986 6
Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo) 25 February 1991, 30 ilm 802 (1991), in force 10 September 1997 (the Espoo Convention), as amended by Decision ii/14 (27 February 2001), and Decision iii/7 (4 June 2004, in force 23 October 2017) xiii, 7, 16, 23, 25–26, 30–31, 35, 39–41, 45, 46, 47–51, 61–62, 64–70, 72–87, 93, 97, 136–137, 140–144, 161–167, 179, 233, 235-236, 309, 313–314, 321, 325
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn) 23 June 1979, 19 ilm 15 (1980), in force 1 November 1983 (the 1979 Bonn Convention) 41, 44
Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Basel) 22 March 1989, 28 ilm 657 (1989), in force 5 May 1992 43
Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (New York) 21 May 1997, 36 ilm 700 (1997), in force 17 August 2014 (the UN Watercourses Convention) 46
Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies (New York) 21 November 1947, 33 unts 261, in force 2 December 1948 297
Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and Lakes (Helsinki) 17 March 1992, 31 ilm 1312 (1992), in force 6 October 1996 (the Water Convention) 46, 50, 387–388
Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (Helsinki) 9 April 1992, bna 35: 0401, in force 17 January 2000 (the Helsinki Convention) 46, 49, 73, 141
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) 2 February 1971, 996 unts 245, 11 ilm 963 (1972), in force 21 December 1975 (The 1971 Ramsar Convention) 41, 66, 261, 340
Convention relating to the Development of Hydraulic Power affecting more than one State (Geneva) 9 December 1923, (League of Nations Treaty Series, Vol. 36. Geneva, UN Publications, p. 77), in force 30 June 1925 27
Energy Charter Treaty and Energy Charter Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects (Lisbon) 17 December 1994, 33 ilm 360 (1995), in force 16 April 1998 43
Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea (Tehran) 4 November 2003, 44 ilm 1 (2005), in force 12 August 2006 46
Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians (Kiev) 27 May 2003, in force 4 January 2006 43
ilo Convention (No. 162) concerning Safety in the Use of Asbestos (Geneva) 72nd ilc session, 24 June 1986, in force 16 Jun 1989 43
ilo Convention concerning Occupational Health Services (Geneva) 25 June 1985, in force 17 February 1988 43
Instrument Establishing the Global Environmental Facility (Geneva) 16 March 1994, 33 ilm 1273 (1994) 55
Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (Kuwait) 24 April 1978, 1140 unts 133, 17 ilm 511 (1978), in force 1 July 1979 42
Modalities and Procedures for a Clean Development Mechanism defined by Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol (Decision 17/cp.7, unfccc, 7th session of the Conference of the Parties (Marrakesh, 2001), UN Doc. fccc/cp/2001/13/Add.2, page 20) 44
Nordic Environmental Protection Convention (Stockholm) 19 February 1974, 13 ilm 511 (1974), in force 5 October 1976 (the nepc) 42, 47, 141, 143, 162, 166–167, 170–171
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid) 4 October 1991, 30 ilm 1461 (1991), in force 14 January 1998 (The Antarctic Environmental Protocol) 39, 47, 50–51, 63, 65, 67–69, 73, 81, 83–84, 135, 346
Protocol to the 1979 Convention on long-range transboundary air pollution concerning the control of emissions of nitrogen oxides or their transboundary fluxes (Sofia) 31 October 1988, 28 ilm 214 (1988), in force 14 February 1991 43, 47, 313
Protocole d’application de la Convention Alpine de 1991 dans le Domaine de la Protection de la Nature et de l’Entretien des Paysages (Chambéry) 20 December 1994 44
Protocole d’application de la Convention Alpine de 1991 dans le domaine de l’énergie (Bled) 16 October 1998, Official Journal of the European Union L 337, 22 December 2005, pp. 36–42 44
Protocole d’application de La Convention Alpine de 1991 dans le domaine des transports (Lucerne) 31 October 2000, Official Journal of the European Union L 323, 8 December 2007, pp. 15–22 44
Quadripartite Agreement on Commercial Navigation on the Lancang-Mekong River, 20 April 2000, available at
Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (Jeddah), 14 February 1982, 9 epl 56 (1982), in force 20 August 1985 42
unece Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents (Helsinki) 17 March 1992, 31 ilm 1330 (1992), in force 19 April 2000 43, 387–388
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay) 10 December 1982, 21 ilm 1261 (1982), in force 16 November 1994 (unclos) 42–43, 46, 61–62, 72–73, 82–83
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York) 9 May 1992, 1771 unts 107, in force 24 March 1994 (the unfccc) 44, 47
Other International Instruments
1997 Guidelines for eia in the Arctic, adopted by the Arctic Council in the 1997 Alta Declaration on the Protection of the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, available at
cbd Voluntary guidelines on biodiversity-inclusive impact assessment, 20–31 March 2006, cop 8 Decision viii/28, UN Doc. unep/cbd/cop/dec/viii/28 66, 79, 121
Declaration concerning the Industrial and Agricultural Use of International Rivers (Montevideo) 24 December 1933, Seventh Conference of American States, Resolution lxxii (the 1933 Montevideo Declaration) 28
Declaration on Environment and Sustainable Development in the Carpathian and Danube Region (Bucharest) 30 April 2001 44
Draft Articles on Prevention of Transboundary Harm from Hazardous Activities, in Report of the International Law Commission, fifty-third session, un gaor, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 10, UN Doc. A/56/10 (2001) (The 2001 Draft Articles on Transboundary Harm) 16, 29–30, 39–40, 68
Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, in Report of the ilc, fifty-third session, un gaor, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 10 at 43, UN Doc. A/56/10 (2001) 130-131
Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, in Report of the International Law Commission, forty-third session, un gaor, 46th Sess., Supp. No. 10, UN Doc. A/46/10 (1991) 15
Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, in Report of the International Law Commission, forty-eighth session, un gaor, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10 at 9, UN Doc. A/51/10 (1996) 15
iil Resolution on Responsibility and Liability under International Law for Environmental Damage (Strasbourg, 4 September 1997 – Eighth Commission) 40, 131
nato, Resolution No. 74 on International Environmental Analysis of Major National Projects, Twenty-third Meeting of the North Atlantic Assembly (Paris) September 1977, in Report of the US Delegation, at 340 (US Government Printing Office. 1977) (The nato Resolution) 37–38
New Delhi Declaration of Principles of International Law Relating to Sustainable Development, International Law Association (ila), ila Resolution 3/2002, 6 April 2002, UN Doc. a/conf.199/8 (9 August 2002) 40
oecd Recommendation of the Council on Common Approaches for Officially Supported Export Credits and Environmental and Social Due Diligence, 28 June 2012, C(2012)101, amended on 6 April 2016, C(2016)38 (The “Common Approaches”) 59
oecd Recommendation on Common Approaches on Environment and Officially Supported Export Credits, 18 December 2003, C(2003)236 and C/M(2003)29 59
oecd Recommendation on the Implementation of a Regime of Equal Right of Access and Non-discrimination in Relation to Transfrontier Pollution, C(77) 28 (Final), 16 ilm 977 (1977) 47
Resolution on Procedures for the Adoption and Implementation of Rules in the Field of Environment, Institute of International Law (ill), Strasbourg Session, 4 September 1997 (Eighth Commission) 40
unep Goals and Principles of Environmental Impact Assessment, unep Res. gc 14/25, 14th Sess. (1987), endorsed by un ga Res. 42/184, un gaor, 42nd Sess., UN Doc. A/Res/42/184 (1987) (the unep Goals and Principles) 30, 38–39, 47, 62, 69, 326
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 14 June 1992, UN Doc. a/conf.151/26 (Vol. i), 31 ilm 874 (1992) (the Rio Declaration) 14, 30, 39, 78–79, 121, 355, 386
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm Declaration, 16 June 1972, UN Doc. A/Conf.48/14/Rev.1, 11 ilm 1416 (1972) 14, 35–36, 325, 386
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 13 September 2007, ga Res. a/res/61/295 121
World Sustainable Development Summit, Plan of Implementation (Johannesburg), 2002, UN. Doc. a/conf.199/20 (the wssd Plan of Implementation) 39, 261
World Charter for Nature, 28 October 1982, un ga Res. 37/7, un gaor, 37th Sess., UN Doc. A/Res/37/7 (1982), 22 ilm 455 (1983) 37, 386
iil Resolution on the Environment (Strasbourg, 4 September 1997 – Eighth Commission) 40
American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 15 June 2016, Organization of American States, ag/res. 2888 (xlvi-o/16) 121
European Secondary Legislation
Council Directive 79/409/eec of 2 April 1979 on the Conservation of Wild Birds (oj l 103, 25 April 1979, p. 1–18) (The Birds Directive) 154,160,168, 173–174, 176–178, 181, 213, 235, 382
Council Directive 85/337/eec of 27 June 1985 on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment (oj l 175, 5 July 1985, p. 40) (the eia Directive), as amended in 1997, 2003 and 2009, and then codified by Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on the assessment of the effects of certain
Council Directive 92/43/eec of 21 May 1992 on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (oj l 206, 22 July 1992, p. 7–50) (the Habitats Directive) 64, 154, 160, 168, 173-174, 175, 356, 364
Directive 2001/18/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 March 2001 on the deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organisms and repealing Council Directive 90/220/eec (oj l 106, 17.4.2001, p. 1–39) (the 2001/18/ec Directive on gmos) 135
Directive 2001/42/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2001 on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment, oj l 197, 21 July 2001, p. 30–37 (the sea Directive) 109
Directive 2003/54/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2003 concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity, and repealing Directive 96/92/ec (oj l 176, 15 July 2003, p. 37–56) 183, 189
Directive 2004/35/ce of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004 on environmental liability with regard to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage (oj l 143, 30 April 2004, p. 56–75) 292–294
Directive 2009/147/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds (oj l 20, 26 January 2010, p. 7–25), replacing the 1979 Directive (the Birds Directive) 154, 356, 359, 362–364, 382
Directive 2009/72/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity, and repealing Directive 2003/54/ec (oj l 211, 14 August 2009, p. 55–93) 189
Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on the assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment (oj l 26, 28 January 2012, p. 1–21) 45, 70, 351
Directive 96/92/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 December 1996 concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity (oj l 27, 30 January 1997, p. 20–29) (the Electricity Directive) 183, 189–190