Abstract
The investigation evaluated the impact of different covering materials in solar dryers on the physical and chemical properties of yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L.). Five solar dryers were constructed using different cover materials, including transparent polycarbonate, glass, acrylic, dark polycarbonate and aluminium coated with titanium oxide. Their performance was compared to an electric stove at 50 °C. The yellow mealworms dried in the glass cover dryer achieved the lowest moisture content (1.39%) in the shortest time (240 min), due to its high internal temperature (72.56 °C) and ability to transmit over 90% of solar irradiance. The drying process increased the concentration of nutrients, including total proteins content, fats, fibre, carbohydrates, and ash content, due to water removal. The total protein content increased significantly in all dried samples. However, changes in colour parameters were observed, with a decrease in lightness and variations in hue angle and chroma. The smallest total colour difference between fresh and dried samples (
1 Introduction
In recent years, the challenges associated with sustainable food production have intensified, particularly in developing countries. By 2050, global demand for animal products is projected to rise by 60-70% (Syahrulawal et al., 2023), with dairy and meat consumption expected to increase by 74 and 58%, respectively, (Makkar, 2018). At present, meat remains the primary source of protein for a significant portion of the world’s population; however, this growing demand for animal protein places considerable pressure on natural resources. Consequently, there is an urgent need to promote research into alternative protein sources that are sustainable, nutritious, and accessible in order to address future food security challenges (Muñoz-Seijas et al., 2024). Edible insects represent a promising alternative to address current global food security challenges, as they combine high nutritional value – with proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and fibre – with environmentally sustainable production (Bogusz et al., 2024; Lange and Nakamura, 2021). The nutritional quality of edible insects appears to be equivalent to, and in some cases even superior to, that of animal-based foods from birds and mammals (Lange and Nakamura, 2021). Worldwide, more than 2000 edible species have been identified (Jongema, 2017; Langston et al., 2024), and Mexico stands out with over 540 recorded species, reflecting its high biodiversity and an ancient culinary tradition based on insect consumption (Ramos-Elorduy, 2008; Secretarı́a de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, 2018). Among the species with the greatest potential is the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.), which offers advantages, including its high nutritional content and its ability to adapt to different substrates and rearing conditions (Langston et al., 2024; Syahrulawal et al., 2023). Yellow mealworm larvae are commercially used as animal feed and, in some regions – including parts of Africa, Asia, America, and Australia – for human consumption (Alves et al., 2016; Kröncke et al., 2018). More recently, the European Union approved their use as food (Turck et al., 2023). Tenebrio molitor L. is an insect species that goes through four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa, and adult (Costa et al., 2020). It feeds mainly on cereals, flour, and their derivatives. Its life cycle varies between 280 and 630 days, depending on environmental conditions (Azzollini et al., 2016). Yellow mealworms are a promising source of essential minerals such as phosphorus and magnesium (Costa et al., 2020). It should be noted that their iron and zinc contents are higher than those found in meats such as chicken, pork, and beef (Da Costa Rocha et al., 2021). Fresh yellow mealworms contain between 59% and 68% moisture, with a water activity of approximately 0.96, making them highly susceptible to microbiological spoilage, lipid oxidation, and both enzymatic and non-enzymatic degradation reactions (Lenaerts et al., 2018). Therefore, post-harvest drying is a fundamental step in ensuring the preservation and quality of products based on these insects (Kröncke et al., 2019). Drying is one of the most widely used methods for preserving various agricultural and food products, including fruits (Sacilik and Elicin, 2006), vegetables (Miranda and Santos, 2020), processed foods (Castillo-Téllez et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2016), edible flowers (Garcı́a-Valladares et al., 2023, 2024) and aromatic plants (Domı́nguez-Niño et al., 2025). To increase consumer acceptance of insects, various processing technologies have been studied, mainly aimed at incorporating them in unrecognizable forms, such as powders (Liceaga, 2021; Melgar-Lalanne et al., 2019). Freeze-drying is currently the most widely adopted industrial technique, as it effectively preserves key quality parameters, including colour, aroma, texture, nutritional value, and biological activity (Huang and Zhang, 2012). However, Kröncke et al., 2018, in comparing drying processes, reported that freeze-dried larvae showed significantly higher oxidative status, while microwave drying and vacuum oven drying emerged as promising options (Kröncke et al., 2018; Lenaerts et al., 2018). Although these methods are often more economical than freeze-drying, they still involve relatively high energy consumption. To address these limitations, recent studies have investigated more sustainable and accessible drying alternatives.
Solar drying systems work by using solar radiation, making them a hygienic, safe, cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally sustainable alternative for food preservation (Sharma et al., 2009). In these systems, air flow is generated either by natural convection or by forced convection using devices such as fans. The drying process may involve the circulation of preheated air through the product inside a closed, shaded chamber, direct exposure to solar radiation, or a combination of both. They reduce the moisture content of food products through forced convection and natural ventilation, achieving levels that inhibit microbiological spoilage. This extends shelf life and allows for lower-cost storage and transportation. A critical factor in the efficiency of solar drying systems is the selection of construction materials, as these directly influence the absorption and transfer of solar energy to the product. The right choice of materials can improve the internal temperature of the dryer, thus improving dehydration performance (Mustapha et al., 2026). In this study, five types of direct solar dryers with different types of covers were evaluated: transparent polycarbonate, glass, acrylic, dark polycarbonate, and aluminium coated with titanium oxide. The aim of this research was to assess the influence of these coating materials on the physical and chemical properties of yellow mealworms and to compare the results with those obtained using conventional drying methods, such as an electric stove.
2 Materials and methods
Sample preparation
Tenebrio molitor L. was fed with wheat bran and probiotics; carrot was used as a water source. It was maintained at a temperature between 24 and 29 °C for 90 to 120 days until reaching the required average weight (approx. 15 mg). After that Tenebrio molitor L. reached the required weight, they were killed by blanching at temperatures above 90 °C for 3 min.
Different types of covers of solar dryers used in the drying process of Tenebrio molitor L. From left to right: polycarbonate, glass, acrylic, dark polycarbonate and aluminium with titanium oxide.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10398
Drying
The drying process of yellow mealworms was carried out using solar dryers equipped with different cover materials, polycarbonate, glass, acrylic, dark polycarbonate and aluminium coated with titanium oxide, as well as a conventional electric stove set at 50 °C, on 26 February 2025 (Figure 1). The dryer has a drying area of 0.3 m2, and its dimensions are 35 × 64 × 26 cm. The sample was spread on perforated polyethylene mesh placed on an aluminium grill through which air circulates, by natural convection, leaving the drying chamber from the upper side. Each dryer has distinct characteristics based on the type of material used in its construction. The dryer with transparent polycarbonate cover was made with protection from UV radiation, it is a material that can transmit over 86% of solar irradiance. The dryer with a glass cover is 6 mm thick and can transmit more than 90% of solar irradiance; an internal temperature of 72.56 °C was reached. The dryer with a transparent acrylic cover is a UV-resistant material, 5 mm thick, and can transmit more than 92% of solar irradiance; an internal temperature of 62.20 °C was reached. The dryer with a gray polycarbonate cover is a UV-resistant material, 6 mm thick, and can transmit 65% of solar irradiance; an internal temperature of 59.29 °C was reached. Finally, titanium oxide coating applied to an aluminium sheet (indirect solar dryer) enables high heat absortion; as a result, the heat remains trapped withing the absorber. Electric drying was carried out in a stove at 50 °C Model RIOSA HCFD-48×48, México. Figure 1 shows different solar covers types used in the drying process of Tenebrio molitor L.
Instrumentation
A pyranometer (CM11; 0-1400 W/m2, ±2%, Kipp&Zonen) were placed to measure solar irradiance in the inclined plane (the tilt angle was 21°) on drying days. An ultraviolet pyranometer (SUV5-V, Maximum UVA/UVB irradiance 400 W/m2, ±2%, Kipp&Zonen) was placed to measure de UV radiation in horizontal plane. One temperature data loggers sensors OM-HL-SP, range −30 to +70 °C (± 0.2 °C), were placed in each dryer. Measurements were recorded automatically using a data acquisition system (Agilent-34972A) every 30 s.
Experimental design
A single-factor experimental design with six levels was used, where the factor was the type of dryer; and the six levels corresponded to six different types of dryers: polycarbonate, glass, acrylic, dark polycarbonate aluminium with titanium oxide, and the electric stove at 50 °C. Each experimental test was performed in triplicate, and the data were statistically analyzed with Minitab 19. The dependent variables were the final moisture content, water activity, colour parameters, crude fat content, ash content, total protein content, crude fibre and carbohydrates.
Analytical methods
The moisture content was determined with a thermobalance (OHAUS, MB45, ±0.3%) set at 105 °C. A 3 g portion of the sample was placed in an aluminium dish at both the start and end of the test. The results were reported as a percentage.
The water activity (aw) was measured using a Rotronic device (Higrolab C1) at 25 °C. A disposable sample cup, completely sealed, was inserted into the instrument and left for 20 min. Calibration was performed with Rotronic’s verification standards.
The total protein content was assessed using the Kjeldahl method, in accordance with the NMX-F-608-NORMEX-2011, which quantifies total organic nitrogen. A 1-2 g portion of the sample was digested with concentrated sulfuric acid (analytical grade, JT Baker) to break down organic compounds. Distillation was carried out using a Kjeldahl equipment (GL-44, FERSA, Mexico), followed by titration of the distillate with 0.1 M HCl (analytical grade, JT Baker). The nitrogen percentage obtained was multiplied by a factor of 4.76 (Janssen et al., 2017) to estimate total crude protein.
The crude fat content was determined through the Soxhlet gravimetric technique using an ethereal solvent. A 1-2 g sample was loaded into a cartridge and placed in the Soxhlet apparatus. Ethyl ether (150 ml, analytical grade, JT Baker) served as the extraction solvent. The process lasted 6 hours, and the fat content was calculated in accordance with the NMX-F-615-NORMEX-2018.
The ash content was analyzed via full calcination. A 3-5 g sample was weighed into a pre-measured porcelain crucible and gradually heated on a grate until the emission of smoke ceased. The resulting residue was collected for further evaluation. Ashing calculations were conducted in a muffle furnace (RHF 1600, Carbolite) at 550 °C, following the guidelines of NMX-F-607-NORMEX-2020.
The crude fibre content was analyzed according to the NMX-F-613-NORMEX-2017 method. Initially, a 1-2 g sample underwent acid digestion using hot sulfuric acid (0.1257 M, analytical grade, JT Baker). After filtration and rinsing with hot water, the residue was subjected to alkaline digestion with NaOH (0.333 M, analytical grade, JT Baker). It was then filtered again and washed with hot water until reaching a neutral pH of 7.0. The final residue was dried at 100 °C for two hours, followed by calcination at 500 °C for 1 h. All analyses were conducted in triplicate.
The total carbohydrate content was calculated using the formula described by Fikiru et al. (2016): Total carbohydrates (%) = 100 − (% moisture +% total protein content +% crude fat +% crude fibre +% ash content).
3 Results
Characterization of yellow mealworms
Tenebrio molitor L. had an initial moisture content of 68.34% and water activity of 0.983; colour parameters of fresh yellow mealworms were:
Characteristics of raw yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L)
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10398
Temperature profiles and solar irradiance across different types of covers of solar dryers used during the mealworm drying (Tenebrio molitor L).
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10398
Temperatures, solar and UV radiation during the drying process of yellow mealworms
Figure 2 shows the fluctuation of solar irradiance and temperature in relation to the sun’s movement. The maximum solar irradiance recorded was 1079 W/m2. The average temperatures inside the dryers were 60.67 (polycarbonate), 72.56 (glass), 62.20 (acrylic), 59.29 (dark polycarbonate) and 58.52 °C (aluminium with titanium oxide). Under these conditions, the initial moisture content of yellow mealworms (68.34%) decreased to 2.31% in the polycarbonate dryer (240 min), 1.39% in the glass dryer (240 min), 1.32% in the acrylic dryer (240 min), 3.10% in the dark polycarbonate dryer (300 min), 5.49% in the titanium oxide dryer (360 min) and 4.16% using the electric stove (300 min) (Figure 3). Figure 4 shows the UV radiation levels inside each solar dryer. Maximum external UV radiation reached 36.28 W/m2, while internal values were 20.11 W/m2 (glass), 6.04 W/m2 (acrylic), 0.38 W/m2 (polycarbonate), and 0.18 W/m2 (dark polycarbonate). In the titanium oxide dryer (indirect solar dryer), UV radiation was not detected.
Drying curves of yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L) using different types of covers of solar dryers.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10398
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation during the drying process of mealworms (Tenebrio molitor L) using different types of covers of solar dryers.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10398
Visual comparison of the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L) drying process using different types of covers of solar dryers.
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10398
Colourimetric analysis in dried Tenebrio molitor
Fresh yellow mealworms exhibit a brownish tone, influenced by positive values on the a (red) and b (yellow) axes, with a hue angle indicating a shade between red and yellow (Figure 5). However, their colour characteristics changed during drying. Table 2 shows a decrease in
Proximal analysis in dehydrated yellow mealworms
As a result of removal of water, the concentration of nutrients in the product increases; therefore, the components were more concentrated in the dried sample than in the fresh mode (Table 2). The initial total protein content of yellow mealworms was 15.09%, which increased to 41.04% in samples dehydrated using a polycarbonate dryer, 40.95% with a glass dryer, 38.61% using an acrylic dryer, 38.88% with a dark polycarbonate dryer, 40.97% in a titanium oxide dryer, and 39.02% using an electric stove at 50 °C. Regarding crude fat content, it increased from 5.706 to values that ranged from 32.43 to 33.72%. The crude fibre content rose from 4.21% to a range between 5.74 and 6.11%. The same behavior was observed in carbohydrates content, it increases from 0.65% to values ranging between 1.40 and 4.83%. The concentration of ash content changed to values that ranging from 3.35 to 3.72% (Table 2).
4 Discussion
Characterization of yellow mealworms
According to Lenaerts et al. (2018) fresh Tenebrio molitor L. larvae have a moisture content between 59 and 68%, and a water activity of around 0.96, which makes them highly susceptible to microbiological spoilage, lipid oxidation, and both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. With respect to colour, Lenaerts et al. (2018) reported similar colour values for fresh yellow mealworms (
Temperatures, solar and UV radiation during the drying process of yellow mealworms
Baek et al. (2019) reported that hot-air drying of yellow mealworms at 60 °C for 6 h reduced their moisture content to 7.71%. On the other hand, Kröncke et al. (2019) reported a reduction in moisture content from 62.87 to 0.87% with rack oven drying, 1.70% with vacuum drying and 9.83% with freeze drying. Finally, Azzollini et al. (2016) reported the drying kinetics of yellow mealworms by using a forced air oven at 50, 60 and 70 °C for 450 min. Some studies focused on solar drying of insects have demonstrated the effect of UV radiation on their properties. In the study of Nyangena et al. (2020), solar drying of four edible insect species resulted in a slight increase in crude protein contents, ranging from 1.5 to 3.5%, depending on the species examined. The authors noted that thermal treatments may lead to a reduction in nitrogen content, potentially resulting from the loss of amides and amines or the formation of complexes with primary and secondary lipid oxidation products. However, the present findings indicated that these effects were likely superseded by other factors, such as the loss of dry matter components. Tiencheu et al. (2012) in the sun drying of Rhynchophorus phoenicis larvae significantly increased the percentage of oleic acid but it was concluded that should avoid applying prolonged drying due to the sunlight initiates oxidation reactions. In relation to the fat content of the yellow mealworm the browning substances produced during the solar drying method may produce both changes in fat content and phospholipid deprivation as seen in the results shown by Selaledi and Mabelebele (2021) where fat content was superior in the solar drying in comparison to oven and frezze drying.
Characteristics of dried yellow mealworm larvae using solar dryers with different covering materials
Citation: Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 2026; 10.1163/23524588-bja10398
Colourimetric analysis in dried Tenebrio molitor L.
Authors as Parniakov et al. (2022) suggest that prolonged exposure to high-temperature hot air drying can subject samples to non-enzymatic browning reactions, which may subsequently result in reduced lightness values. Usub et al. (2008) in the drying of silkworm pupae found that the darkness in sun drying was due to the direct exposure of the pupae surfaces to solar irradiance for a longer drying time. The observed colour variation between fresh and dried samples results from multiple factors. Lehmad et al. (2024) identified enzymatic browning reactions as a key contributor, where polyphenol oxidation and the subsequent formation of iron-polyphenol complexes are involved. In addition, non-enzymatic browning reactions between amino acids and reducing sugars also play a significant role in altering sample colour. The lower redness and yellowness values observed in
Proximal analysis in dehydrated yellow mealworms
In this study, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that the total protein content of samples dehydrated using a polycarbonate dryer was significantly different compared to those dried with glass, acrylic, dark polycarbonate, titanium oxide, and electric stove dryers. Regarding crude fat content, no significant differences were observed among samples dehydrated with polycarbonate, glass, acrylic, and titanium oxide dryers; however, the dark polycarbonate dryer produced significantly different results. For fibre content, the ANOVA indicated no significant differences between the drying methods. In terms of carbohydrate content, the analysis showed that samples dried with polycarbonate and titanium oxide dryers were similar, as were those dried with a glass dryer and an electric stove at 50 °C; however, the acrylic dryer differed significantly from the other methods. Purschke et al. (2018) reported increases in protein and fat contents during oven drying at 80 °C for 7 h, freeze drying at 0.2 mbar for 48 h and fluidized bed drying at 55 °C for 2 h. This investigation indicated that chitin depletion resulted in a statistically significant increase in total protein content within the fine particle fractions. Additionally, the use of thermal drying may have facilitated the co-diffusion of melted fat from inner tissues (fat body) to the chitin shell during water removal, thereby leading to an elevation in chitin-associated fat levels. Selaledi and Mabelebele (2021) reported total protein contents of 50.96% in yellow mealworms dried by sun drying for 24 h, 51.45% by freeze-drying at −50 °C for 24 h, and 51.51% by oven drying at 120 °C for 1 h. By contrast, a reduction in total protein content in yellow mealworms has been reported by Kröncke et al. (2019) and Yan et al. (2023). Purschke et al. (2018) found that, even when studying the same species of yellow mealworms, variables such as diet, origin, instar phase, and seasonal fluctuations can lead to significant differences in nutrient composition. Additionally, processing techniques and the specific larval stage selected for analysis may affect outcomes. Other factors, including rearing conditions play a crucial role in determining the chemical and nutritional quality of yellow mealworms (Syahrulawal et al. 2023). In the research conducted by Shadung et al. (2012), the drying of African metallic wood boring beetle at 66 °C resulted in increased protein and other nutrient levels. This enhancement was attributed to improved protein digestibility, as the process unfolded polypeptide chains and made the proteins more susceptible to enzymatic digestion also the moisture removal by heat increased concentration of nutrients and made some nutrient more available. With respect to radiation the investigation of Lima et al. (2018), reported that macronutrients as lipids, carbohydrates, and proteins are relatively stable with doses of radiation up to 10 kGy, and regarding proteins, in thermal processing, the denaturation is less intense.
5 Conclusions
This study evaluated the impact of different solar drier covering materials on the physical and chemical properties of yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.). Results indicated that all the solar dryers effectively reduced the moisture content of yellow mealworm larvae to levels that inhibit microbiological deterioration. However, the titanium oxide dryer (indirect dryer) and electric stove at 50 °C resulted in the least colour variation suggesting that non-exposure to UV radiation helps preserve colour as quality attribute that impact in the food acceptance. The proximal analysis revealed an increase in the concentration of the total protein content, crude fat content, crude fibre, carbohydrates, and ash content, due to water removal. The findings suggest that solar drying using a titanium oxide-coated dryer or other indirect solar dryers offers a promising alternative to traditional electric drying methods, providing a good balance between nutrient preservation, colour, and energy efficiency. By optimizing the design and materials used in solar dryers, it may be possible to further improve the quality and shelf life of dried yellow mealworms larvae, supporting their potential as a sustainable food source. The study provides valuable insights for the development of sustainable drying technologies for edible insects, particularly in regions with high solar irradiance. Overall, it was possible to demonstrate the viability of solar drying as a method for preserving the quality and nutritional value of yellow mealworms larvae, and it may serve as a reference for future studies on the drying of edible insects.
Corresponding author; e-mail: ogv@ier.unam.mx
Acknowledgements
The authors hose names are listed above agree to be accountable for the content and conclusions of the article. We thank professor Vı́ctor Gomez Espinoza for his help in the instrumentation of the direct solar dryer, José Manuel Vázquez Morales for preparing the graphs and OptiProt company, headed by Magdalena Ivonne Márquez Garcı́a, for providing the raw material (Tenebrio molitor L.) necessary for the development of the experiments. To the project PAPIIT IN100926: Secado de productos alimentarios para zonas rurales con tecnología de secadores solares tipo invernadero.
Author contributions
Alfredo Domı́nguez-Niño: Writing (review, editing), methodology. Paulina Guillén-Velázquez: Investigation, experimentation, data curation. Iris Santos-González: experimentation, data analysis, investigation, writing (review). Mario Luna-Flores: Experimentation. Octavio Garcı́a-Valladares: Validation, conceptualization, writing (review and editing).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Data availability
Data are available from the authors on request.
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