1 Introduction
The cultivation of knowledge and skills in higher education is a dynamic process of teaching and learning, involving pedagogy as a driver interacting with the sociocultural environment. The mastery of disciplinary competence thus appears to revolve around the force of covert teaching and overt knowledge from which certain meanings are accentuated (Apple, 2019). Studies have used threshold concepts as the base of assessment to inform learning (Springfield et al., 2017), i.e. through threshold modes from naïve subliminal variation, to liminal variation, then to sophisticated postliminal variation (Land et al., 2010; Meyer et al., 2008). As threshold concepts integrate hidden interrelated phenomenon (Lin, 2020), whether measuring students’ mastery of disciplinary competence by the gradational stages is as straightforward as it might appear requires further investigation.
In the field of oral translation (‘interpreting’) viewed as a constituent for language development, interpreting competence involves the interpreter’s bilingual and cross-cultural communicative skills and interpreting quality (Wang, 2021) and points towards levels of understanding (Biasetti, 2016). These levels, in real-life learning scenarios, reflect interpreting students’ active role driven by linguistic and social knowledge in the intercultural communicative process (Roy, 1992). Attaining competence in interpreting, in this sense, is concerned with both the technical and epistemic-ontological dimensions demanding a repertoire of knowledge and skills to perform interpreting tasks. The former primarily lies in bilingual knowledge and transfer skills whereas the latter is related to interpreter professional identity and role (Lee, 2020).
Interpreting competence requires conceptual knowledge to understand translation concepts and knowledge of procedure to know how interpreting actually works (Kallia & Sentance, 2021). Interdisciplinary awareness, transferring language phenomena across cultures (Locher & Sidiropoulou, 2021), and integrating cultural values (Dayter, 2021) are the key factors to successful
Provided that learning is hardly detached from contexts, how curriculum is instructed and how teaching is implemented tend to affect students’ performance. Recognising the troublesome nature of measuring students’ grasp of threshold concepts, this study uses a framework integrating threshold modes and self-determination theory (SDT) advocated by Ryan and Deci (2017, 2020) not merely to assess students’ development of interpreting competence but to explore whether the development of their performance responds to how much they could direct their own learning. It seems unproblematic to claim that in learning, the higher the level that students achieve, the more proficiently they can direct how they learn. Yet because of troublesome knowledge per se and students’ internalised perceptions of knowing rooted in contexts, it is not necessarily taken for granted that what they know is compatibly demonstrated in their performance.
This paper is organised from reviewing how threshold modes can be integrated with SDT in an attempt to understand learners in their context, building an interpreting competence development rubric, and its application in the English-Chinese interpreting class in Chinese higher education. Rather than exhibiting and evaluating students’ interpreting production, this empirical study was conducted to examine how students’ development of interpreting competence shifted and whether there was any discrepancy between how they performed and what they perceived after a media literacy pedagogy was implemented in the educational setting set against the sociocultural context.
2
The threshold concepts framework concerned with individual variation in conceptual understanding is referred to as the phases of transformation from subliminal mode, preliminal mode, liminal mode, to postliminal mode, that is, from tacit understanding, initial perceptions, to entering and existing in the liminal space (Meyer et al., 2008). Students travel from their ‘natural way of thinking’, move to the initial stage of knowing the threshold concept, then understanding the threshold concept towards the integration of different views, and on to the epistemological and ontological transformation in ‘a new conceptual space’ (Meyer et al., 2008, p. 68). Since grasping threshold concepts brings about new conceptual understandings that used to be hidden (Meyer & Land, 2003), passing through the obstacle of comprehending troublesome knowledge transforms learning and helps integrate seemingly discrete parts for conceptual connections along the messy and oscillatory journey (Cousin, 2006). This complexity indicates that in practice, learning based on understanding of a threshold concept is not only a process with stages but also a reflective process in which students may experience uncertainty in a transitional or liminal space (O’Callaghan et al., 2020) and, at this point, they attempt to identify their sense of positioning in a context (Timmermans & Meyer, 2019).
Though threshold concepts are claimed to have an influence on identity change through transformation, Davis and Green (2023) argue that they tend to encourage content-based knowledge rather than ‘affective domain transformative experiences’ triggering identity development. Brown et al. (2022) further argue that we should consider encompassing threshold concepts and context, and how the concepts affect identity. To address the challenge of measuring the acquisition of thresholds concepts, it is pivotal to contemplate that the learning process and demonstration are not generally applicable for different students in different sociocultural milieus because teaching and learning in contexts might not be as neutral as it looks.
Discussing the influence of threshold concepts and context on identity, Brown et al. (2022, p. 309) regard threshold concepts as ‘a reflective prompt to explore “how and where students get stuck”’ rather than ‘a theory of identity development’. Because the inner mental or affective domain in learning is difficult to measure, in understanding threshold concepts, to draw a line of demarcation to discriminate the investigation of learning troublesomeness and identity development appears to be unrealistic. After breaking through the threshold of stuckness in learning, it is not impossible for students to see
Centred on intrinsic motivation, SDT assumes people’s inherent interest in pursuing psychological growth and integration supported by basic needs for autonomy as a sense of ownership, competence as the feeling of mastery, and relatedness as a sense of belonging (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Learning involves how social support satisfies such needs and in turn makes students self-motivated and self-determined (Yu & Levesque-Bristol, 2020). Ryan and Deci (2017) point out that in what they call ‘the General Model’ at the general between-individual level and the situational within-individual level, much attention has been paid to the within-individual process about the effects of instructional autonomy on students’ self-determination in a particular educational setting. Given that the externally controlling environment might not support intrinsic motivation associated with academic achievement, self-determination implies personal development integrating the inner layer of self-motivation and personality, as well as the outer layer of the nurturing conditions (Ryan & Deci, 2000). As the need supports in schools and classrooms are met, adult development emerges in response to achievement results and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2017, p. 352). In relation to teaching and learning, two layers of social environments including the classroom and the wider context might also have an influence on learning tied to students’ attainment of desired outcomes. It can lead to the struggle between the internal commitment and external pressure representing external reinforcement (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT, in a nutshell, consists in creating a motivating atmosphere led by how pedagogy is implemented to meet the psychological needs with a focus on mastery goals rather than performance (Ford, 2019).
SDT’s taxonomy of motivation ranges from amotivation with lack of perceived competence, extrinsic motivation including external regulation and introjection as controlled forms of motivation, and identified regulation and integration as autonomous forms of motivation, to the highly volitional intrinsic motivation based in interest and enjoyment (Ryan & Deci, 2020). They can be categorised as controlled motivation (linked to a student’s desire to meet personal or social expectations), and autonomous motivation (connected to higher levels of academic achievement (Botnaru et al., 2021)). Drawing an analogy between the threshold modes of variation and SDT’s taxonomy of motivation takes account of not merely how students make progress and transform
In interpreting competence, the analogy reifies how the features of threshold concepts might be demonstrated. Seleskovitch’s (1968, 1989) Interpretive Theory of Translation serves as a useful background from the perspective of cognitive psychology with three stages: comprehension (meaning understanding the original text in the source language), deverbalisation (symbolising breaking away from the source language) and reformulation (denoting reconstruction of the target language). It is a cyclical process where comprehension of linguistic and cultural knowledge lays the foundation for the following stages, and after analysis of information, meaning-making is achieved and further enhances understanding. Descriptive and procedural knowledge are integrated and restructured, prompting students to move from novice knowledge to expert knowledge (PACTE, 2000). Interpreting learners hence need to develop cultural knowledge and an awareness of differences in values and attitudes rather than mere language abilities.
To integrate all this into the four threshold-SDT levels, as presented in Table 23.1, at the lowest subliminal-amotivation level, students tend to view things from a simplistic perspective and lack intentionality. At the preliminal-external
The analogy between threshold concepts modes and SDT’s types of motivation
| Environment-determined learning → Self-directed learning | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Modes | Subliminal | Preliminal | Liminal | Postliminal | ||
| Status | Tacit knowing | Initial perception | Entering | Existing | ||
| Attributes | Naïve thinking | Developing thinking | Independent thinking | Integrated thinking | ||
| Types | Amotivation | External regulation | Introjection | Identification | Integration | Intrisinc motivation |
| Causality | Impersonal | External | Somewhat external | Somewhat internal | Internal | Internal |
| Attributes | Lack of value | External rewards | Ego involvement | Personal importance | Congruence | Inherent satisfaction |
| Extrinsic motivation | ||||||
| Teaching-oriented pedagogy → Learning-oriented pedagogy against the context | ||||||
3 The Context and Methods
The study adopted both qualitative and quantitative methods to investigate students’ attainment of interpreting competence in the class of English-Chinese interpreting in Chinese higher education and to evaluate whether the media literacy pedagogy set against the sociocultural environment affected how students passed through the threshold. Interpreting competence with three stages based on Seleskovitch’s (1968, 1989) Theory is identified as the threshold skill cultivated through the media literacy pedagogical approach to interpreting which is bound up with inter- or cross-cultural communication (Hlavac & Xu, 2020; Shen, 2021). It echoes media literacy being regarded as the ability to access, analyse, evaluate, understand, express, and create media messages, as described by the Center for Media Literacy (2022), the National Association for Media Literacy Education (2022), and Ofcom (2021). Three main steps of awareness, analysis, and reconstruction are encapsulated to involve critical knowledge, skills, and attitude, in parallel with comprehension (grasping the meaning of the text), deverbalisation (discarding unnecessary information and converting between languages), and reformulation (expressing in the target language after organisation). The route to the final expression prompts learners to transform and integrate in interpreting learning after reflection (Table 23.2). Their interpreting performance is demonstrated according to the corresponding levels which indicate their understanding of disciplinary knowledge and their role. The epistemological and ontological dimensions are
Interpreting competence development rubric
| The interpreting route | Awareness-comprehension → Analysis-deverbalisation → Reconstruction-reformulation |
|---|---|
| Postliminal-Integration-Intrinsic motivation (PI) | Epistemological state |
| Constructing new meaning; demonstrating sophisticated competence; showing open-mindedness | |
| Ontological state | |
| Going beyond multiple perspectives | |
| Self positioning- identity development | |
| Self-autonomy | |
| Reflection ↑ | External determinant < Internal assurance |
| Liminal-identification (LI) | Epistemological state |
| Synthesising and evaluating knowledge; demonstrating adequate competence; showing tolerance | |
| Ontological state | |
| Being formed and understood | |
| Self positioning – identity development | |
| Self-affirmation | |
| Reflection ↑ | External determinant ≒ Internal assurance |
| Preliminal-External regulation Introjection (PE) | Epistemological state |
| Acknowledging knowledge as uncertain, developing competence, and showing scepticism | |
| Ontological state | |
| Interacting with external values | |
| Self positioning – identity development | |
| Self-examination | |
| Reflection ↑ | External determinant > Internal assurance |
| Subliminal-Amotivation (SA) | Epistemological state |
| Accepting knowledge without considering the background; no perceived competence; biased view | |
| Ontological state | |
| Being determined by external values | |
| Self positioning | |
| Simplicity |
The interpreting class was focused on interpreting international events covered by news media. This course proceeded with three thematic cycles of international relations in response to emphasising the three stages of comprehension, deverbalisation, and reformulation in interpreting consecutively in a semester of 16-week classes and the final assessment in the 17th week. The media literacy pedagogy involved 68 senior students in the English department. To evaluate their transformation, they took an interpreting pretest in the first week and the final examination as summative assessment in the 17th week. The emphasis was on assessing and understanding students’ knowing and their development of threshold-crossing. Whether students encountered difficulties in the stages of comprehension, deverbalisation, or reformulation was probed through both the final assessment and their self-evaluation in the final reflection. How their learning performance shifted in the process was assessed through the periodical interpreting formative assessment about each of the three themes at the end of each of the three cycles, that is, in the 6th week, the 11th week, and 16th week.
Students’ overall performance included their interpreting scores in the pre-class, formative assessment, summative assessment, and final evaluation, along with their participation in learning. Their interpreting transformation were analysed through the paired sample t-test to discover whether there was statistically significant difference between the results of students’ pre-class assessment and final assessment. Correlation analysis was used to examine whether students’ final performance was significantly correlated with the three stages of interpreting. Their perceptions of learning in the written reflection were analysed through thematic coding with a deductive approach, focused on three themes of their learning progression, comprehension of media messages, and learning difficulties in interpreting practice.
4 Results
4.1 Students’ Transformation in Interpreting Competence
As shown in Table 23.3, after running the t-test, it was found the probability value was statistically significant (p = .000; p < .05). The finding suggests that the average score of students’ final assessment was significantly higher than that of their pre-class assessment. Students’ development of interpreting competence tended to be positively affected by the intervention of using the media literacy approach to interpreting, and their interpreting performance generally
Students’ transformation in interpreting competence
| Paired samples statistics | Pre-class assessment | Final assessment | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mean score | M = 64.51, SD = 7.609 | M = 69.26, SD = 8.116 | |
| Statistically significant difference t = −6.709, df = 67, two-tailed p = .000 | |||
| Correlations n = 68 |
Awareness-comprehension | Analysis-deverbalisation | Deconstruction- reformulation |
| Pearson Correlation | .858** | .857** | .859** |
| Individual final marks Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) |
.000 | .000 | .000 |
| P < 0.05 significant correlation found | |||
| Interpreting performance | Stage | N | |
| Difficulty (final assessment) | 1 | Comprehension | 39 |
| 2 | Deverbalisation | 19 | |
| 3 | Reformulation | 10 | |
| Interpreting competence stages (overall performance) | 1 | Subliminal-amotivation (SA) | 20 |
| 2 | Preliminal-external regulation-introjection (PE) | 30 | |
| 3 | Liminal-identification (LI) | 18 | |
On the other hand, the results from their final assessment revealed that 39 out of 68 students encountered difficulties in contextually comprehending messages, 19 students found deverbalisation the most difficult, and 10 students
4.2 Students’ Perceptions of Learning
In this part, students’ perceptions extracted from their final reflection were presented, in response to their interpreting competence categorised as at each of the three levels of subliminal-amotivation (SA), preliminal-external regulation-introjection (PE), and liminal-identification (LI) and each of the three themes. Students were numbered according to the sequence of submission of their reflection. Under the first theme of progression (T1), students generally praised the use of the media literacy approach to interpreting because of helping them to understand the background of international issues. Extracted examples are presented as follows:
Media literacy helps us to understand the matter more comprehensively. Verbal translation must be based on understanding; otherwise, only translating some independent phrases cannot convey effective information. Media literacy provides me with preparation before the interpreting process. (Student7/PE30/T1)
We could learn more information through media literacy which helps us to know detailed things about the issues and understand the stories more deeply. With the deep comprehension of the issue, we could structure it more clearly. (Student15/SA20/T1)
The given media helped me to understand the background of topics, which can improve my comprehension and awareness of the subjects. Deverbalisation after analysis of the messages helped me to understand the issues from different aspects.
(Student17/LI18/T1)
Under the second theme (T2) about their comprehension of interpreting international relations, however, students’ responses varied. Most students showed how much they understood at the preliminal-external regulation-introjection
China is a country of peace and follows an independent diplomatic model. One of the good examples was that the International Import Expo was held in Shanghai. It shows the determination of China to cooperate with other countries to develop global economy.
(Student21/PE30/T2)
Students whose interpreting performance was now at the preliminal-external regulation-introjection level started to compare pieces of information from different resources and analyse the texts from the given contexts. For those whose interpreting performance remained at the subliminal-amotivation level, by contrast, their understanding of the context tended to be naïve. One student, for example, expressed her opinion about the US-China trade war which began in 2018 as below:
We need to try our best to solve the problems of any conflict, so that the world economy can be well developed, and international relations can help benefit each other. For example, the United States can communicate with our country and stop denying the fact, which will be helpful for building a close relationship.
(Student14/ SA20/ T2)
Though the idea of promoting positive relationship is highly valued, lack of comprehensive survey of the background of any related issue could not result in an understanding of the context, which in turn influences how well they interpreted the texts about the theme of international relationship. Comparatively, students who moved up to the liminal-identification level were able to assess the contexts and make judgments according to information with support of adequate evidence. For instance, a student considered the impact of the trade war as complicated:
New tariffs in the trade clash have made the industrial parts too expensive, and the trade war accelerates the transition. The trade war between China and US heightened tensions between the two economic giants and caused damage in other countries. To respond and keep the health of mutual economic development is important. China is pursuing peace, friendship, and win-win cooperation to deepen mutual beneficial cooperation and promote new development with other countries.
(Student1/ LI18/ T2)
The third theme (T3) is concerned with learning difficulties encountered in the process of retention, paraphrasing, and interpreting messages. Students generally talked about their experiences linked to interpreting skills required; for instance, these students articulated:
Verbal translation must be based on understanding; only translating some independent phrases cannot convey effective information. But I think it was so hard to achieve real understanding because of complicated messages. (Student7/PE30/T3)
In retention exercises, at first, unfamiliar words confused me, but after memorising, I kept the meaning and then interpreted after analysing and organising. In paraphrasing exercises, I would use my words to paraphrase the original text after remembering the key words. The practice was a good way for me to exercise my short-term memory and the ability of language restructure.
(Student2/LI18/T3)
The process of interpreting, for students whose interpreting competence were at higher levels, involves the realisation of background knowledge and the complexity of processing information. For those whose interpreting competence were at lower levels, however, the attainment of interpreting competence is concerned with troublesome knowledge. One student talked about the difficulty she encountered:
The activities of memory and paraphrasing exercises should have helped me better understand the source text and develop a solid ability of comprehension. But sometimes the texts are too difficult. It’s a long way to reach a competence of language organisation.
(Student18/SA20/T3)
Students recognised that fundamental understanding of contexts and knowledge plays an important role in reformulating interpreting messages. Students also made neutral remarks with more attention paid to the procedure of interpreting, whilst few students mentioned how contextual understanding
5 Discussions
Most students stayed at the preliminal-external regulation-introjection level where they acknowledged knowledge as uncertain: interacting with external values; examining themselves: accessing, analysing, and evaluating media messages for interpreting. Referring to the interpreting competence development rubric, no one reached the highest level of postliminal-Integration-Intrinsic motivation integrating epistemological, ontological, and identity dimensions sophisticatedly. From the findings, comprehension of the texts in the source language played a part in affecting how they performed in the end. Comprehension facilitated students’ understanding of the given issues and prompted them to move from mere subliminal-amotivation to preliminal-external regulation-introjection in which judgement-making based on self-examination was involved. The mature level of liminal-identification, however, requires digestion of the media messages after deep understanding of the background information and the cultivation of extra-linguistic competence. It also demonstrates internalised values for self-affirmation.
No matter how they performed in the process, in general students regarded the media literacy approach as effective in enhancing their comprehension of the text. They basically recognised that the first step of awareness-comprehension laid the foundation for developing their interpreting competence in analysing and reorganising messages. Their final interpreting performance, however, varied because of how much they could understand the information they read and how effectively they could manage the media messages from different resources. It was a process of complexity reflecting students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes shown in the epistemological and ontological dimensions, also involving their affective reaction, especially at the moment of encountering difficulties of crossing the barrier to understanding. In other words, students recognised the importance of the first step of awareness-comprehension and found it useful in interpreting, but some were still trapped at this stage. Their final reflection on interpreting learning showed that they generally supported using the media literacy approach because they agreed with the idea that broad access to media messages could contribute to their contextual comprehension of the texts.
According to the findings from their final reflection, students’ contextual understanding had three features: (1) general neutral description of the background information about the world issues with supportive remarks about
From this perspective, threshold-crossing tended to be confined by insufficient access to media messages from a variety of perspectives and an uncritical learning pattern under the sociocultural circumstances. Learning is never limited to cognitive or skill-based development but takes account of students’ attitudes and motivations (Kraiger et al., 1993; Pinto, 2022). Comprehension in learning is also attributed to epistemic belief systems in the educational setting (Mitchell & Pereira-Edwards, 2022). To demonstrate appropriate performance might have become a consensus in a particular sociocultural environment because of the social requirement of legitimate knowledge. This results in tacit learning which is implicit and difficult to measure.
It is therefore useful to put forward a model of two-layers-three-dimensions of threshold concepts: the two layers – the dominant layer and recessive layer; the three dimensions – the epistemological dimension, ontological dimension, and identity development. The first layer has two aspects: the epistemological dimension linked to knowing and the ontological dimension tied to being. The second layer involves the internalised dimension relevant to identity or self-positioning affected by the sociocultural environment. At the highest postliminal-Integration-Intrinsic motivation level comprising both the most autonomous motivation – integration and intrinsic motivation, for example, Ryan and Deci (2020) point out the difference between value as the base of integration and enjoyment as the base of intrinsic motivation in terms of comparing the two highly volitional qualities. Identity development with attitudes and beliefs, in this sense, goes beyond mere cultivation through learning transformation but concerns long-term engaging and nurturing experiences.
6 Conclusion
Interpreting as a practice-oriented subject concerns the use of responsive strategies in real-time interaction with both the text and context. This study used the interpreting competence development rubric integrating threshold modes and SDT’s taxonomy of motivation to investigate and assess students’
Confined to the time of implementation, this study did not include more detailed illustration of how individual students transformed in terms of knowing, being, and identity and sketch out how the two layers and three dimensions interacted with each other in this case. The present study, rather, paves the way for careful design of future research. It might be beneficial to consider the measurement of threshold crossing from a comprehensive perspective because students’ transformation is addressed by teaching, assessment and how students learn (Nicola-Richmond et al., 2018). To probe the hidden part of threshold concepts is troublesome itself and thus lies in reciprocity encouraging communication with the stakeholders, including students, teachers, and the environment.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted in Huaiyin Institute of Technology, China. The author expresses gratitude to the colleagues and students who contributed to the completion of the work. This empirical work was supported by Jiangsu Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Science under Grant number 18JYB003.
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