Introduction
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is under the umbrella of teaching language for specific purposes (LSP) (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998). It is designed for a particular group of people with special needs in particular contexts (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) and entails teaching language, discourse and relevant communication skills by incorporating topics and underlying methodology of the target discipline or profession (Dudley-Evans, 2001). ESP is mainly characterized by features such as being grounded on the results of needs analysis, drawing from topics, tasks, and activities of a specific purpose, and in cases benefiting from the methodology of subject areas or professions (Widdowson, 1983). Materials in ESP are related to the learners’ special language learning needs. In fact, ESP is materials-driven and learner-centered and as a classroom-based program, concerned with practical outcomes (Dudley-Evans, 2001). Like any other program, ESP programs cannot be devoid of materials or coursebooks and the evaluation process to select textbooks and materials in ESP situations cannot be ignored.
This chapter reviews the main issues in ESP textbook evaluation which are well informed by the underpinned assumptions and principles of materials development. It briefly mentions the importance of textbook evaluation and the prominent status of needs analysis in designing and evaluating materials. This is followed by referring to the proposed language learning and teaching principles in developing coursebooks which need to underlie their evaluation. In addition, the prerequisite to any ESP textbook evaluation that is knowledge of ESP context and its specificity is discussed. Taking these aspects into account, the chapter ends with elaborations and examples of the two basic topics of evaluation criteria and methods without which no materials evaluation would be possible. It is worth mentioning that throughout this chapter, from time to time the term materials is used while the focus is specifically on textbooks as a type of material which is facilitative of language learning and can be informative, instructional, experiential, eliciting and exploratory (Tomlinson, 2012, 2016).
Significance of ESP Textbook Selection and Evaluation
Materials in many educational settings play a decisive role in exposing learners to the language specifically in foreign language contexts where the ESP classroom may be the only source of English (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998). Textbooks provide the basis of much of the language input and classroom practices learners receive and engage in. They also provide teachers with the source of instruction, content and structure of lessons, and balance of the skills to teach. Materials are considered to be essential within any curriculum and have more roles than facilitating learning. As curriculum models, they provide role models for classroom practices, and accomplish teacher development role (Nunan, 1998). Although textbooks are written to suit a large number of students in different teaching-learning contexts, no one book can be found to be perfect for a particular institution, a particular class or an individual in a class (McGrath, 2002).
The extensive literature on the necessity and importance of using textbooks and materials in ESP teaching situations carries the idea of evaluation with itself. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987) evaluation is “a matching process, matching needs to available solutions” (p. 96). It is a systematic attempt to gather information and make judgments (Lynch, 1996; McGrath, 2002). It is “an intrinsic part of teaching and learning” (Rea-Dickins & Germaine, 1994, p. 4) and “fundamentally a subjective, rule-of-thumb activity” for which “no neat formula, grid, or system will ever provide a definitive yardstick” (Sheldon, 1988, p. 245), an idea also supported by other researchers in the field (e.g., Richards, 2001; Tomlinson, 2001, 2003c). Rea-Dickens and Germanie (1992) state that “there is a need to evaluate language teaching methods, materials, and their effectiveness as teachers and also how materials are presented to learners, the types of learning tasks used, and the way the courses are designed. They are all part of the curriculum taking place both prior to and during the implementation of a learning program, and they all must be evaluated” (p. 5). So the evaluation process should be carefully conducted to assure optimal results (McGrath, 2002).
While textbook evaluation or selection “signals an executive educational decision in which there is considerable professional, financial, and even political investment” (Sheldon, 1988, p. 238), textbooks may be evaluated for different reasons. Peterson (1998) states the following reasons: to make decisions on using textbooks or generating in-house materials; to select a textbook out of a number of coursebooks, and to examine a textbook in detail after choosing it to determine the areas that need to be supplemented. So evaluation is beneficial for selection of textbooks which is one of the important decisions to make in an ESP program.
ESP textbook evaluation is also important when both language learners and teachers are taken into account. It is important because numerous students around the world use available materials including textbooks to gain appropriate language knowledge to understand their disciplines and establish their careers and successfully communicate with members of their discourse community (Hyland, 2006). The process of materials evaluation also develops teachers’ understanding and contributes to acquisition theories and pedagogical practices (Tomlinson, 2005). In fact, it helps teachers develop awareness by integrating their theoretical knowledge and their practice. It also helps them see materials as a fundamental part of the whole teaching/learning process and establish priorities since one textbook may not meet all the learning/teaching requirements and needs which lead to decisions about the criteria that are more important to consider (Hutchinson, 1987). In other words, materials evaluation is important as it serves the immediate practical aim of selecting teaching materials and also plays a significant role in developing teachers’ awareness of the assumptions of language learning based on which they teach.
Needs Analysis in ESP Materials Development and Evaluation
Needs analysis refers to the techniques for collecting and assessing information relevant to course design: it is the means of establishing the how and what of a course. It is a continuous process, since we modify our teaching as we come to learn more about our students, and in this way it actually shades into evaluation – the means of establishing the effectiveness of a course. Needs is actually an umbrella term that embraces many aspects, incorporating learners’ goals and backgrounds, their language proficiencies, their reasons for taking the course, their teaching and learning preferences, and the situations they will need to communicate in. Needs can involve what learners know, don’t know or want to know, and can be collected and analyzed in a variety of ways. (pp. 73–74)
The needs analysis process includes the following aspects (Basturkmen, 2010):
Target situation analysis: Identification of tasks, activities and skills learners are/will be using English for; what the learners should ideally know and be able to do.
Discourse analysis: Descriptions of the language used in the above.
Present situation analysis: Identification of what the learners do and do not know and can or cannot do in relation to the demands of the target situation.
Learner factor analysis: Identification of learner factors such as their motivation, how they learn and their perceptions of their needs.
Teaching context analysis: Identification of factors related to the environment in which the course will run. Consideration of what realistically the ESP course and teacher can offer (p. 19).
Needs analysis which was introduced through the ESP movement and considered as the cornerstone of ESP (Dudley-Evans & St. Jones, 1998) can serve a number of different purposes such as identifying the language skills learners need to perform a specific role (e.g., tour guide, sales manager, etc.), specifying if a course adequately meets the needs of potential learners, identifying particular learners’ specific language needs, determining the gap between learners’ present situation and target situation needs (Richards, 2001), and bridging the gap between insiders and outsiders’ perspectives or assumptions (Widodo & Pusporini, 2010). While needs analysis serves as the basis of “informed curriculum practices, such as syllabus design, materials development, and instructional design” (p. 150), detailed or extensive needs analysis that precedes or accompanies materials and textbook evaluation may help teachers in making sound decisions about the suitability of ESP materials.
Principles in Developing and Evaluating Materials
While needs analysis can serve as a basis for both materials development and evaluation, in the same vein, language teaching and learning principles may inform textbook design and evaluation. In other words, the principles and assumptions underlying materials development and the set of criteria proposed in this regard may contribute to a valid and reliable coursebook evaluation. Thus, textbook evaluation in general and ESP textbook evaluation in particular make sense to the extent that the principles that inform the development of such materials are taken into account when materials evaluation criteria are being set and evaluation instruments are developed. This is the issue we turn to now.
In his chapter on principles and procedures of materials development, Maley (2016) extensively reviews some principles, proposed by applied linguists and materials writers, which have much congruency and overlap and can provide the possibility of developing suitable materials based on sound grounds. For example, he refers to Ellis (2005) who proposes10 principles of language teaching syllabus, Nation’s (1993) 16 principles, and Tomlinson’s (2011) principles of second language acquisition which are pertinent to the development of language teaching materials as listed below.
Materials should achieve impact.
Materials should help learners feel at ease.
Materials should help learners develop confidence.
What is being taught should be perceived as relevant and useful by learners.
Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment.
Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught.
Materials should expose learners to language in authentic use.
The learners’ attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input.
Materials should provide learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative purposes.
Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually delayed.
Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning styles.
Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes.
Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction.
Materials should maximise learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and emotional involvement which stimulates both right and left-brain activities.
Materials should not rely on too much controlled practice.
Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback (Maley, 2016, pp. 16–17).
Similarly, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) suggest six principles and four elements to consider in developing materials for ESP contexts which still leave room for teachers’ creativity. Based on these principles, materials should stimulate learning, facilitate the teaching-learning process, reflect the perspectives on language and learning, mirror the nature of learning tasks, extend the basis of teacher training, and offer correct and appropriate language use models. The four elements they suggest include input, language focus, content focus, and tasks. Input may be of different types, such as texts, dialogs, recordings, diagrams, based on the performed needs analysis, which provide the learners with the opportunity of using their knowledge and subject matter. Content focus refers to learners’ specialist areas which should be utilized to promote meaningful communication in the activities. The third element, language focus, provides learners with the chance of learning how parts of the language work together. Finally, since language use is the ultimate goal of language learning, the designed materials should include communicative tasks which provide learners with enough practice in language skills and content subject matter.
Considering the characteristics of ESP materials and general elements which need to be included in an ESP course and the guiding approaches in this regard, Widodo and Pusporini, (2010) propose the following eight guiding principles in ESP materials development.
Principle 1: Teaching materials should have a clear set of learning goals and objectives.
Principle 2: Teaching materials should contain learning tasks, which allow for students’ schemata or background knowledge or experience activation.
Principle 3: Learning tasks in the materials should allow students to explore their specialized needs and interests.
Principle 4: Learning tasks in the materials should enable students to develop their language skills for authentic communication and content competence.
Principle 5: In the materials, learning tasks should integrate language skills emphasized.
Principle 6: Learning tasks in the materials should be as authentic as possible.
Principle 7: Teaching materials should have impact on learner language development.
Principle 8: Teaching materials should inform what roles learners and teachers play in and out of the classroom (pp. 154–155).
These principles are basic theoretical frameworks for ESP materials development or materials design in other areas. However, experienced teachers may adopt other principles based on the requirements of their teaching and learning context and their academic background and experience. In fact, since no one book fits all situations, materials developers’ practice should not be confined to specific sets of principles but tailored to unique situations and contexts. By the same token, evaluators need to consider principles relevant and specific to each learning context in evaluating ESP materials.
ESP Teaching-Learning Context
While textbooks and materials can provide learning opportunities for language learners in various learning contexts, in an ESP context which prioritizes specific learners’ needs, and is characterized by its authentic materials, goal-related orientation, and self-direction (Carter, 1983 cited in Gatehouse, 2001) teaching ESP encompasses the following characteristics according to Sifakis (2003):
Knowledge and skill: In ESP context, learners acquire content or specialized knowledge and certain language skills (e.g., business English).
Competence in English for General Purposes (EGP): Learners’ EGP skills which include the four skills and sub-skills are focused on to facilitate ESP learning and syllabus designing.
Vocational competence: It is related to the learners’ ability to perform specific professional tasks in workplaces and essential to shape the syllabus.
Subject specificity: learners’ vocational and EGP competence with their ability in dealing with subject-specific information integrate to improve their class participation.
Compulsory/voluntary nature of learning: This feature can affect the learners’ motivation so the teachers’ role in organizing the lessons is vital to help learners learn the language and properly function in workplaces or academic settings.
Cultural characteristics: This feature boosts learners’ sense of cultural identity and enhances their motivation in ESP contexts.
Beliefs about language learning: At the outset, clarifying ESP learners’ beliefs about language learning will raise their awareness about various aspects of the ESP context.
Nation and Macalister (2010) also consider a balanced range of learning opportunities which should be provided in a language course. The four major kinds of activity which approximately require equal time include meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning, and fluency development.
Meaning-focused input: This would include authentic texts for reading and listening with interesting topics which are relevant to the learners’ age and interests.
Meaning-focused output: This would include opportunities for learning through speaking and writing and using language to express real meanings. The conditions for meaning-focused input and output are the same and writing letters, assignments, or stories and poems, role-plays, simulations, oral presentations, etc. are examples of such activities.
Language-focused learning: This involves learners’ deliberate focus on activities with particular language features such as parts of speech, collocations, grammar, intentional vocabulary learning, etc.
Fluency development: This refers to learners’ becoming fluent with features already acquired, to achieve automatic proficiency in coping with input, and in generating output. It might include extensive reading activities, listening to stories, writing fluency activities, speed reading, etc.
In any ESP context, materials should be carefully selected to mirror learners’ needs, the goals, and methods and values of teaching programs (Cunningsworth, 1995). Widodo (2016) identifies seven key elements of ESP materials which are “(1) authenticity, (2) topics/themes, (3) texts and contexts, (4) knowledge and language, (5) tasks or activities, (6) representations of participants and social practices, and (7) pedagogical prompts. These elements emphasize the totality of what constitutes ESP materials” (p. 280). In addition, ESP materials should stimulate learners’ prior knowledge and experience. In fact, their world knowledge, general level of linguistic competence, knowledge of specific topics and registers, and communicative ability should be considered and also developed in ESP materials. This calls for ESP teachers’ attention to the selection of simulated or real contexts, texts and situations from the learners’ subject area which will naturally encompass students’ language needs, and to the application of authentic texts and tasks they use in their specialism or vocation (Harding, 2007) which are also strongly advocated in ESP materials design (Basturkmen, 2010; Belcher, 2006). This reminds us the idea that ESP situations are different from one another and should be studied in their own terms. Specificity is observed in ESP social context, learning goals and objectives, selection of materials and activities, teaching methodologies (Cheng, 2011), and language genres (Hyland, 2011) which all need to be appropriate to learners’ needs.
ESP Textbook Evaluation Criteria
Much of the literature on materials development reveals various criteria to help teachers evaluate or select materials. In his state-of-the-art article on materials development, Tomlinson (2012) refers to evaluation instruments, schemes, checklists, and models proposed from 1970 onwards and briefly mentions their focus of evaluation (i.e., textbooks or teaching materials), and in some cases the number of components or categories they include (e.g., Breen & Candlin, 1987; Cunningsworth, 1984, 1995; Harmer, 1991, 1998; Sheldon, 1987, 1988; Skierso, 1991; Ur, 1996). Tomlinson mentions that many of those evaluation criteria are specific to a learning context and not generalizable or transferable to other contexts without extensive modifications; however, there are exceptions such as Cunningworth (1995) and Byrd (2001) who respectively consider the target learners, and the fit between the textbook and the curriculum, as well as students and teachers importance in proposing evaluation criteria.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) divide the evaluation process into four stages including defining criteria, subjective analysis, objective analysis, and matching. The first two stages occur at the course design stage. In deciding about the preferred criteria, various factors may be considered some of which are typically related to learners’ goals, needs, learning styles, proficiency levels, others are related to language teaching methods, classroom contexts and processes, and the potential of materials in inducing motivation, variety and interest (Rubdy, 2003). In subjective analysis, course analysis in terms of materials requirements takes place; then in objective analysis, the subjective analysis of materials is evaluated, and finally the matching stage helps decide about the suitability of the materials.
There are different types of evaluating criteria, universal or local (Tomlinson, 2003c), general or specific (McGrath, 2002). As Tomlinson (2003c) differentiates between the two types of criteria, universal ones are based on principled beliefs on effective language learning and can be used to evaluate materials for all possible learners. However, local criteria which are generated from a profile are specific to the context in which the materials are going to be used. Similarly, McGrath (2002) considers general criteria as indispensable features of any good teaching-learning material while specific ones are context related. Accordingly, he proposes a book evaluation procedure including “materials analysis, first-glance evaluation, user feedback, evaluation using situation specific checklists and, finally, selection” (Tomlinson, 2012, p. 149).
In designing and evaluating ESP teaching materials, Bardi (2013) takes components of communicative competence (i.e., grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence) into account as they are basic competencies related to the four language skills and enhance the development of integrated skills. The criteria Bardi proposes to be applied in developing and evaluating an ESP textbook for a public administration course include:
Student participation in the learning process
Development of communication skills and strategies
Integrating meaning and form in the study of grammar
Types and range of learning tasks and activities
Authenticity of texts
Authenticity of tasks
Development of learning strategies (p. 9).
Moreover, Context, motivation, appropriateness, methodology, and language are categories used by Brunton (2009) to evaluate an ESP textbook for the tourism industry. In addition, practical concerns, skills, strategies, variety of tasks and activities, and layout are the features considered by Baleghizadeh and Rahimi (2011) in evaluating an ESP coursebook on sociology based on Sheldon’s (1998) model of evaluation. Content, vocabulary and grammar, exercises and activities, attractiveness of text and context are also the criteria used in Azarnoosh and Ganji’s (2014) study to evaluate a textbook on management. The list of examples goes on and shows the diversity of criteria and categories used by researchers in evaluating ESP books taught around the world.
While various lists of criteria are proposed to evaluate general and ESP textbooks and materials, it is important to consider manageable number of evaluation criteria and questions (Cunningsworth, 1995) as well as appropriate ones. Tomlinson and Masuhara (2004, p. 7) suggest five questions to evaluate materials evaluation criteria which include:
Is each question an evaluation question?
Does each question only ask one question?
Is each question answerable?
Is each question free of dogma?
Is each question reliable in the sense that other evaluators would interpret it in the same way?
However, investigating the literature reveals that most of the proposed criteria do not meet these conditions and are not applicable in other contexts (Tomlinson, 2012).
ESP Textbook Evaluation Methods
Among different methods of book evaluation, checklists and frameworks are discussed here. Checklists are the most widely used approach to textbook evaluation. Some examples of checklists are Tomlinson (2008), Litz (2005), McDonough and Shaw (2003), Byrd (2001), Harmer (2001), Littlejohn (1998), Ur (1996), Cunnigsworth (1995), and Sheldon (1988). Checklists provide the researchers with a list of criteria of successful learning-teaching materials based on which researchers can evaluate the quality of the materials.
One of the advantages of using checklists is to provide an economic and systematic way to ensure that all relevant items are considered for evaluation (Cunnigworth, 1995; McGrath, 2002). However, using the checklist approach has not been without disadvantages. For example, a criterion like “competence of the author” (Tucker, 1987, p. 358) or a limitation concerning what “desirable materials should look like” (Littlejohn, 1998, p. 181) present some serious problems in book evaluation. Other issues such as demanding much time and expertise, being too imprecise hence not answerable, being context specific and not generalizable, and being confusing and lacking validity are problematic aspects that Mukundan and Ahour (2010) pinpoint after reviewing 48 evaluation checklists from 1970 to 2008.
it is easy to see that people unfamiliar with materials evaluation, but beginning to read up on the topic, may say to themselves: “Some of these checklists are outdated, but which of the others should I choose?”. Demystification is urgently needed here, if nowhere else. The answer is, essentially, “none of them”. … it is unlikely that any two teaching/learning situations will correspond exactly. … checklists in the literature should be regarded as illustrative and suggestive only, and never as decretory. While some of the criteria they embody may be relevant to one’s own teaching/learning situation, perhaps their most valuable aspect is that they stimulate thought about the system of evaluation and the modus operandi to be adopted. (p. 381)
In addition to the proposed checklists for materials evaluation, a number of frameworks have been proposed. For example, McDonough and Shaw (2003) propose a framework for textbook evaluation including external and internal evaluation. The external evaluation involves a brief overview of whatever the writer believes about the book which is normally explicitly stated. The details include the intended audience and proficiency level, the context of use, presentation of materials, grading layout and methodology, visuals contained, culture, and supplementary materials and learning resources. The internal evaluation which is more detailed covers the skills to be developed and their presentation in the material, supporting audio and or video recording, authenticity of materials, suitability of materials for different learning styles, and individual, pair and group learning activities. McDonough and Shaw emphasize that usability, generalizability, adaptability and flexibility are the four main considerations when deciding on the suitability of materials.
Rubdy (2003) claims that a good evaluation framework contributes to matching flexibility, adaptability, and relevance of a textbook with language learners and their varying needs. She proposes a dynamic model of evaluation in which the three categories of psychological validity, pedagogical validity and process and content validity interact. These categories respectively include criteria to evaluate materials based on learners’ needs, goals and educational requirements; teachers’ abilities, skills, theories and beliefs; and textbook writers’ educational philosophy and overall view of language and language learning.
Chan (2009) also proposes a holistic evaluative framework of a six-step model to evaluate business English based on research findings, pedagogical issues, and the discourse of the business English. The pedagogical concerns include evaluating business meetings based on needs analysis, teaching approaches for the language of meetings, spoken grammar and authenticity, and learner autonomy; and the discourse features of business meetings are based on research findings about “goal orientation, structure of meetings, language and strategies used in meetings, and cultural differences.
Another ESP evaluation framework (McCullagh, 2015) proposed for medical textbooks is based on principles of materials development and ESP. The framework is built upon Malay’s (2003, cited in McCullagh) distinction of inputs, processes and outputs in materials development and consists of two parts: an outcome matrix and an evaluation grid. The outcome matrix specifying types and levels of outcomes is developed based on the results of the needs analysis and Miller’s (1990 cited in McCullagh) pyramid of four outcome levels (i.e. knows, knows how, shows how, and does) assessing developmental stages of learners’ knowledge and skills. The evaluation grid specifies three categories and eight criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of inputs and processes in ESP textbooks. These criteria include some criteria from Dudley-Evans and St. Johns (1998) and Hyland (2006) “to evaluate how well ESP materials fulfil roles for learners and teachers” (McCullagh, 2015, p. 28) and some of Tomlinson’s (2003b) universal criteria.
After reviewing evaluation instruments of about 40 years, Mukundan and Ahour (2010) came to the conclusion that developing evaluation frameworks can be more beneficial than detailed and inflexible checklists in that they can include clear, concise and flexible criteria. Tomlinson (2003a) also states that in generating evaluation frameworks, flexibility should be one of the central considerations since its realization ensures that the target learners, materials, and specific learning context are appropriately associated. Mukundan and Ahour (2010) also advocate using a composite framework which includes the use of three instruments, checklists, reflective journals and concordance software (see Chapter 10, this volume). In fact, triangulation of methods and sources meant to utilize various instruments in incorporating qualitative and quantitative methods in collecting data from insiders and outsiders may lead to a more reliable and valid evaluation of ESP materials.
Conclusion
In this chapter, issues related to ESP textbook evaluation were discussed. Considering ESP learning and teaching context, the importance of using coursebooks in ESP teaching context as well as evaluating them were mentioned. A review on the significance of conducting needs analysis in both development and evaluation of ESP materials, and language learning principles which need to be observed were presented. In addition, some of the criteria and categories, and checklists and frameworks proposed by scholars and researchers to evaluate textbooks and materials were introduced. As Bardi (2013) argues “the two stages in the ‘life’ of a textbook need to inform each other in the sense that textbook evaluation should be underpinned by the writer’s approach to textbook design” (p. 9).
In evaluating ESP textbooks, if priority is given to satisfying learners’ needs, attending to appropriate principles besides considering characteristics of ESP courses and materials are part of the wider picture of setting evaluation criteria and going through the evaluation process. Through ongoing ESP textbook evaluation, the match between many aspects such as the students’ needs, the goals of the course and the selected materials may be ensured. What seems to be more logical in ESP materials evaluation is going through the preliminary (before an ESP course begins), formative (while the course is ongoing), and summative (at the end of the course) evaluation (Robinson, 1991). In other words, evaluation may be carried out at three stages of pre-use, in-use, and post-use (Cunnigsworth, 1995; Ellis, 1997; McGrath, 2002) which presents a more comprehensive model of materials evaluation applied for different purposes. While the pre-use evaluation helps ESP teachers select appropriate materials, they are recommended to conduct retrospective evaluation rather than predictive evaluation to check the influence of the materials they used to make necessary modifications (Ellis, 2011; Tomlinson, 2003c).
Since there are plethora of varied criteria for evaluation of ESP textbooks which are reflections of the priorities and constraints of each learning-teaching context and for that reason not applicable in all situations, we hope ESP teachers and practitioners find the information reviewed in this chapter beneficial in providing them with insights on preparing appropriate criteria and flexible tools to evaluate ESP textbooks more objectively.
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