In the first millennium BCE, Eastern Anatolia (Türkiye), the Caucasus, and Northwestern Iran experienced a radical socio-cultural change with the establishment and the expansion of the Urartu as a territorial state. Many of these new elements of culture and statehood are unique to the Urartu and the region. The Urartian Kingdom skillfully adapted a centralized system of governance to the harsh, mountainous terrain of Eastern Anatolia.
ṬuÅ¡pa is the main source and the point of emergence of Urartian studies. The character and reiterated descriptions of ṬuÅ¡pa/Van Rock have shaped the perception and the definition of Urartu. ṬuÅ¡pa is also a guide to understanding the Urartu. Its environmental setting and location, inscriptions, monumental buildings, rock-carved monuments, and bedrock workmanship reflect the unique aspects of Urartian culture. Sarduri I, one of the earliest Urartian kings known from textual sources, proclaimed his kingdom here, and therefore ṬuÅ¡pa was the first city and the first capital of the kingdom. Beginning with the IÅ¡puini-Minua period, the kings of Urartu assumed the title âKing of the country of Biainili, Lord of the city of ṬuÅ¡paâ.
The earliest excavations in Ṭušpa/Van Rock were led by Austen Henry Layard as a short season in 1849 and excavations led by various researchers continued at the site with intervals until 2019. During this 170-year period, many areas were excavated utilizing different methodologies, many areas explored by field surveys, and documentation work was carried out in various areas of the site. Unfortunately, the great majority of these explorations were very short-term studies and publications of results were delayed, incomplete, and not detailed. Among them, the works of Friedrich Eduard Schulz, Carl Ferdinand Friedrich Lehmann-Haupt, Afif Erzen, and M. Taner Tarhan have been important sources of information and reference for understanding Ṭušpa.
This book, which constitutes the first volume of the results of our excavations and research in and around Van Fortress in 2010â2019, covers the investigations carried out at the ṬuÅ¡pa Citadel/Van Rock. The results of our research on ṬuÅ¡pa-Van Fortress Mound will be the subject of the second volume in this series, and the investigations conducted in the Old City of Van will be the focus of the third and the last volume.
During our research at the site between 2010â2019 and in this book, we have adopted a more holistic approach to ṬuÅ¡pa, and its structures compared to previous excavation campaigns. In addition to monumental structures like rock tombs, we also evaluated smaller structures and problematic building groups in detail. Habitation sequence at the site has continued until the 20th century, leaving thick cultural deposits of later settlement levels. Especially in relatively flat areas, historical structures are superimposed over Urartian levels, which therefore cannot be excavated. Additionally, the topography of the ṬuÅ¡pa Citadel/Van Rock presents a great challenge for archaeological excavations. Transportation to various parts of the site, dangerous cliffs of the rock massif, transferring backfill from excavated tranches outside the site are among the many logistical problems that constrain fieldwork at the site. Nevertheless, we were able to carry out limited excavations in test trenches and soundings in the areas of the citadel where observable concentrations of structural remains with intriguing features are present. Although excavations were conducted in restricted areas, they yielded rewarding results, so much so that the discovery of the BG90 tomb has shown that there are still major features waiting to be discovered in the citadel.
Archaeological excavations at Van Fortress Mound, initiated in 2010, and investigations at the citadel within the framework of Van Citadel and Van Old City excavations, initiated in 2012, focused mostly on documentation. Because many structures and the topography of the citadel had not been sufficiently documented before our fieldwork seasons, this thorough documentation was necessary at the site. In this regard, it should be stated that the primary goal of our campaign of excavations at Ṭušpa has been to accurately document the archaeological remains of the Urartian capital and to disseminate by detailed publications new data and observations about this ancient capital city, which is the key reference site for Urartian studies in many respects. Digital scanning in rocky areas, calibration of the scans at corrected resolutions, and production of illustrations entailed the long-term dedication of many team members. We are indebted to the commitment of our students and the specialists who participated in the Van Old City, Van Fortress and Van Fortress Mound excavations during ten seasons, and the valuable support provided by the staff of the Istanbul University Research Center for History and Archeology of Van Region (VANTAM).
Field photography was undertaken by Hale Tümer, Ayda Abakay, and Senem IÅık, and aerial photographs, orthophotos, restitutions, and 3-D scanning and reconstructions were produced by Erkan Konyar, Rıdvan Yıldız, Rıza Gürler Akgün, Åemsihan Kaya, and ArmaÄan Tan. Architectural illustrations and topographic maps were created by the support and coordinated work of a team of specialists including Prof. Dr. Yegan Kâhya, Umut Almaç, Murat ÃaÄlayan, Mehmet Baha Dinibütün, Prof. Dr. Hasan Fırat Diker, Fikriye Pelin Kurtul, Ä°lknur Ä°nanç, Åafak Susa YiÄit, Aykut Fenerci, and Nirgül Tunç.
Words cannot possibly express our gratitude to the late Prof. Dr. M. Taner Tarhan, our mentor and former director of Van Fortress excavations, who kindly shared with us the reports and visuals from past excavation campaigns at ṬuÅ¡pa. Part of the archived records of Istanbul Universityâs excavations, which had started in 1959, were in the possession of Prof. Tarhan as the director of excavations before us, and as we re-initiated excavations at the site, Taner Hoca handed over to us the excavation reports, field records, illustrations, and finds inventory records from the period of excavations under his directorship. We had the invaluable opportunity to delve into these records and utilize them optimally for synthesizing the available information from this campaign of excavations.
Field investigations at ṬuÅ¡pa were carried out under the auspices of Istanbul University and with the permission of the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums at the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Türkiye. As Director of ṬuÅ¡pa Excavations, on behalf of the excavation team, I would like to express our gratitude to the General Directorate and the staff of the Department of Excavations at the General Directorate, as well as Van Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, the directorate and staff of Van Museum, and all ministry representatives who have overseen our work and facilitated the project to run smoothly throughout the excavation seasons. For their financial support, we are indebted to the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums, Istanbul University Scientific Research Projects (BAP) Office, Ministry of Culture and Tourism Revolving Funds Management Central Directory (DÃSÄ°MM), General Directorate of Aygaz LPG Inc. Co., Ministry of Industry and Technology East Anatolia Project (DAP) and East Anatolia Development Agency (DAKA) Administration and staff, Van Governorship, Van Metropolitan Municipality, and Ä°pekyolu Municipality.
We thank Brill Publications for accepting the publication project of the book, and Sr. Acquisitions Editor Katelyn Chin and Associate Editor Katerina Sofianou at Brill, who kindly helped and guided us through the stages of the publication process. The last stages of this book were completed at NINOâLeiden (The Netherlands Institute for the Near East). We truly appreciate the supportive working conditions they provided. We are also grateful to A. Wilton and Dr. G. Bike YazıcıoÄlu for her effort and patience in proofreading and copy editing the manuscript.
Erkan Konyar and Bülent Genç
Istanbul, October 2024