This appendix contains a detailed overview of the contents of the DharmaparÄ«ká¹£Ä by Amitagati, including references to chapter and verse numbers in the edition (ÅÄstri 1978).
The composition opens with an invocation of the supreme beings, the tÄ«rthaá¹ karas (1.1), the siddhas (1.2), the sÅ«ris (1.3), adhyÄpakas (1.4), and sÄdhus (1.5), and an invocation of SarasvatÄ« (1.6), followed by introductory verses to excuse the poetâs difficulty in explaining dharma (1.7â1.16). Then follows the main plot:
On JambÅ«dvÄ«pa, in Bharataká¹£etra, there is a mountain range called VijayÄrdha, which has sixty cities on its northern and fifty cities on its southern flank and is inhabited by vidyÄdharas (1.17â1.26). On that mountain lies the city VaijayantÄ« (1.27), where King JitaÅatru ruled (1.32). He had a wife called VÄyuvega (1.37) and together they had a son Manovega (1.43). Manovega was a devout Jain and he befriended the son of the king of another city on that mountain, PriyÄpurÄ«, who was named Pavanavega (1.48). Pavanavega was touched by the venom of false belief (mithyÄtva) (1.50). This worried Manovega, so that he pondered in his mind day and night on how to help his friend turn towards Jainism. He decided to wander the earth in search for a solution (1.51â54). At some point, his vimÄna (âheavenly chariotâ) halted and Manovega asked himself if this is due to an ascetic, a friend, or an enemy (1.56). Peering down upon the earth to find the cause of this obstruction, his gaze was caught by the beautiful city of UjjayinÄ« in the middle of the MÄlava region (1.57â58). In the north of that city there was a park in which a muni was sitting (1.64). Manovega descended from the sky and bowed down at the feet of the muni (1.69â70) whose name is Jinamati (2.1). Manovega then asked Jinamati to explain the concept of saá¹sÄra, to explain if there is a god, and how much suffering and happiness exists in the world (2.2). Jinamati replied that happiness and suffering are inseparable in saá¹sÄra and illustrated this with a parable of a traveler and an elephant (2.3):
On his travels a traveler falls into a pit full of threatening snakes. An elephant passes by and starts shaking a tree that stands on the edge of the pit. Because of that, the bees residing in the tree start swarming all around causing pain to the traveler. He looks up in despair and while doing so a drop of honey falls on his frightened lips. This makes him long for more of the honey. Thus, he remains in a situation of concurrent suffering and happiness (2.5â21).
After this, Jinamati elaborated on his explanation of saá¹sÄra and dharma (2.22â52). When the teaching ended, Manovega bowed to his feet (2.82) and asked: âMy friend has fallen into false belief (mithyÄtva). How can I help him to turn to the path of the Jina?â (2.85). Jinamati replied that Manovega should take his friend to PÄá¹alÄ«putra (2.90).1 Manovega then bowed to Jinamati and left for home in his vimÄna. (2.95) On his way back, he met Pavanavega, who approached him and asked desperately: âWhere have you been for so long, without me? How could I survive without you? I have searched everywhere, but I could not find youâ (3.2â8). Manovega answered him: âI was wandering around the world of humans to worship at Jina temples and on these wanderings, I saw the city of PÄá¹alÄ«putra. (3.20) That city is inhabited by many Brahmins, knowledgeable of the Vedas, the epics and PurÄá¹as, etc. (3.23â32). Let us go to that city!â (3.39). The two friends decided to go the next morning and each went back to their palaces (3.41â42).
1 First Entry into PÄá¹alÄ«putra
The next morning, they set out for PÄá¹alÄ«putra in their vimÄna (3.44â45) and got down in a beautiful grove outside the city of PÄá¹alÄ«putra (3.46). Then they dressed themselves up with many ornaments and entered the city carrying wood and grass. The people of the city curiously observed them and asked each other who these fellows could be (2.55â65). The two vidyÄdharas sat down on a golden throne and beat the drums (2.66). Some Brahmins approached them to argue and asked them who they are, saying that they should not beat the drums if they have not won a debate (2.67â88). Manovega replied that they are the sons of a poor grass and wood seller (2.93); to which the Brahmins said that they have never seen any grass and wood sellers adorned with jewels (4.1). Manovega in turn answers that such characters also occur in the RÄmÄyaá¹a and MahÄbhÄrata (4.3). When the Brahmins again question his words, Manovega starts telling them a story:
1.1 The Story of Madhukara
âIn the region of MÄlayadeÅa2 there was a villagerâs son named Madhukara. One day because of a quarrel with his father he left the house. (4.9) Wandering around the earth, he arrived in the land of the ÄbhÄ«ras,3 where he saw huge piles of chickpeas (4.10). There, he met a karaá¹a (a person of mixed caste) who asked him if he had ever seen something so wonderful (4.12). Madhukara, the stupid fellow, replied: âAs big as these piles of chickpeas, there are piles of pepper in my own countryâ (4. 13). The karaá¹a angrily laughed and called him a liar (4.17), and he urged the peasants to arrest him (4.18). One of the villagers, however, suggested that Madhukara should be punished according to what he deserves (4.19), namely to âput eight peas/rounds4 on his headâ (4.20). After this, Madhukara went back to his own village. There he repeated what he had seen in the previous village, but again the villagers did not believe him, and he received the same punishment (4.23â25). That is why he is known as muá¹£á¹iá¹£oá¸aÅaka, âthe one with the sixteen fistsâ (4.26).
This story proves that without any visual evidence, truth is not believed by fools (4.28â30).â
Manovega then addressed the Brahmins straightforwardly: âIf I am in the midst of such foolish people, then I will not tell any furtherâ (4.32). The Brahmins affirmed to him that they are wise people, and that he should not be afraid of telling the truth (4.34â38). So Manovega continued and explained that there are ten types of fools: the lover, the hater, the stupid-minded, the quarreller, the bilious, the mango fool, the milk fool, the agarwood fool, the sandalwood fool, and the simpleton fool (4.40).5 Again, he asked to ascertain whether no such of fool was amongst the Brahmins, for he feared what would happen then (4.41). But when the Brahmins urged him to speak further, Manovega started with telling the story of the first fool:
1.2 The Story of the Lover
âOn the southern bank of the river RevÄ lies the city of SÄmanta, where a village chief Bahudhanyaka lived (4.47).6 He had two wives, SundarÄ« and Kuraá¹ gÄ«. Kuraá¹ gÄ« was the youngest and the prettiest and thus Bahudhanyaka lived with her. He told SundarÄ« to live in another house with their son and gave her eight bulls and ten cows, two ploughmen and two servants (4.49â52). Bahudhanyaka was completely smitten with the younger wife (4.53â59). One day, Bahudhanyaka was summoned by the king to come to his palace (4.60). Kuraá¹ gÄ« pleaded with him to take her with him, but Bahudhanyaka refused, afraid that the king would take her away because of her beauty. So, he departed for the kingâs abode, leaving behind his two wives (4. 72). While Bahudhanyaka was gone, however, Kuraá¹ gÄ« fooled around with some playboys and loaded them with food, money, and clothes (4.78â79). By the time her husband came back, she was bereft of all the possessions in the house (4.84). A messenger sent forth by Bahudhanyaka arrived at the house to tell her she should prepare a feast meal for her husbandâs return (4.88). Kuraá¹ gÄ« told him that he should address his request to SundarÄ«, as she is the eldest wife who would be offended if she was not asked first (4.89). So, the messenger and Kuraá¹ gÄ« went together to the house of SundarÄ« to inform her (4.90). SundarÄ« foresaw that their husband would not like this, but nevertheless prepared a splendid meal. (4.91â93). When Bahudhanyaka arrived he first went to the house of Kuraá¹ gÄ« (5.1) and blinded by love asked her for food (5.13). But Kuraá¹ gÄ« faked being angry at him and said: âGo to the house of that mother of yours. Food is made there (5.15).â So Bahudhanyaka did. SundarÄ« served him all types of delicious dishes (5.30), but Bahudhanika did not like them, blind as he was (5.31). SundarÄ« asked him why he did not like the food and replied that he only wanted the food made by his younger wife (5.38â39). SundarÄ« then went to the house of Kuraá¹ gÄ« and told her that she should prepare food for their husband (5.40). Thinking about the issue Kuraá¹ gÄ« got an idea. If she would give him cow dung as a meal, then he, liking whatever she gave, would definitely be happy with her (5.42). Thus, Kuraá¹ gÄ« gave cow dung to SundarÄ« for their husband to eat (5.44). Bahudhanyaka gladly ate up the cow dung âpreparedâ by Kuraá¹ gÄ« (5.45). After eating it all, he asked a Brahmin why his wife Kuraá¹ gÄ« was angry (5.49). The Brahmin explained to him the bad nature of women and revealed that Kuraá¹ gÄ« had given away all his belongings (5.64). Hearing this, Bahudhanyaka went to Kuraá¹ gÄ« and told her what the Brahmin had told him (5.69). She, however, replied that the Brahmin had bad intentions and was lying (5.70). Therefore, Bahudhanyaka decided to banish the Brahmin (5.72).â
Manovega directs his speech again to the Brahmins of PÄá¹alÄ«putra: âSee how there is great danger for those who speak the truth to undiscriminating peopleâ (5.73). After telling this story of the lover (rakta), Manovega continued by telling about the hater (dviá¹£á¹a) (5.76).
1.3 The Story of the Hater
âIn the town of KÅ«á¹a there were two village-chiefs. The first was called Skanda, the second was Vakra. Vakra was called that way, because he was crooked-minded (5.77). Between both there was enmity, because they were jealous of each otherâs wealth (5.78). At a certain time, Vakra had a terminal illness (5.81). His son came to him and said: âFather, you should do something virtuous so that you become void of sin (5.82). Why donât you give your wealth to sÄdhus and Brahmins (5.85)?â Vakra said: âDear son, although Skanda never did any good, he obtained great wealth. Please do this deed which I will now tell you, to make me happy (5.88). Take my body to Skandaâs field and set free all of his animals and destroy the crops (5.89). Hide somewhere on the side and watch him arrive. He will certainly become enraged and will want to kill me. After that, you should tell all the people that he killed me. The king will punish him for it and take away all his wealth (5.90â91).â The son followed his fatherâs request and did all of this (5.92).â
âThose who, like Vakra, are always comparing with another, they cannot obtain pure happinessâ, said Manovega to the Brahmins (5.95). Manovega then continued by telling the story of the âstupid oneâ (mÅ«á¸ha) (6.1).
1.4 The Story of the Stupid-Minded
âIn the city of Kaá¹á¹hoá¹£á¹ha, that was like the city of gods, there was a Brahmin called BhÅ«tamati. He was respected by other Brahmins and was well-taught in the Vedas as a child. His family made him marry a girl YajÃ±Ä and he proceeded his life as an upÄdhyÄya (âBrahmin teacherâ) while spending time enjoying himself with his wife (6.2â7). At some point, a boy named Yajña came along, who was worthy of learning the Vedas (6.8â9). While he stayed at their house, YajÃ±Ä was completely shaken by his presence (6.10).7 After some time, BhÅ«tamati was called by the other Brahmins to go perform a puá¹á¸arÄ«ka sacrifice (6.23).8 Therefore, he told YajÃ±Ä to take care of the house and that she should sleep inside, while the boy should rest at the door (6.24). As soon as BhÅ«tamati had left, the two youngsters fell into each otherâs arms, yielding to sexual pleasure (6.25â35). When four months had passed, Yajña said to YajñÄ: âMy love, many days have passed now of loving you and BhÅ«tamati is about to come back. What should I do (6.38â39)?â YajÃ±Ä replied: âLet us take all the belongings and go somewhere else (6.41). You should bring two dead bodies and I will make sure we can leave unseen (6.43).â Yajña did as she said (5.44). After half a night, he brought two corpses (6.45), one of which she put inside the house, the other at the gate. Then she lit everything on fire (6.46), and they both fled. The people found the house burned to ashes with only more ashes and bones remaining inside and grieved (6.48â50). When BhÅ«tamati came back, he started to cry asking himself how this could have happened (6.52â64). Then, a BrahmacÄrin came to him and said: âWhy do you despair, and do you not see reality (6.65)?â9 and he continued his speech on the foulness of women and the transience of beings (6.66â79). BhÅ«tamati angrily replied: âWhy should I believe you (6.80)? Why would BrahmÄ, Åiva, Viá¹£á¹u and Indra all take pleasure in women, if women were so despicable (6.81)?â Having praised his love for the young woman (Yajña), BhÅ«tamati put the bones and ashes in a bottle gourd and left to go to the river Ganges (6.86). There, he came across his student Yajña, who cried out âO lord, forgive me!â (6.87). BhÅ«tamati did not recognize him and asked who he was. Yajña answered that he was his student (6.88). But BhÅ«tamati went on: âYou are a rogue. Go away!â (6.89). Then he met his wife there. She also asked him to forgive her. But he, again, had to ask who she was and did not believe her when she told him she was his wife (6.90â92). BhÅ«tamati, thinking that all people in the city were cheats, left for another place (6.93).â
After this story, Manovega again pointed out to the Brahmins that this is the nature of those who do not think (6.94â95). He went on to tell the story of the stubborn-minded (vyudgrÄhin):
1.5 The Story of the Stubborn-Minded
âIn NanduradvÄri there was once a king called Durdhara, who had a son JÄtyandha. This prince was blind by birth and gave away all sorts of ornaments to beggars (7.3). A minister of the king saw this and told it to the king, because he feared that his wealth would be depleted (7.4). The king asked the minister for advice and told him to do as he saw fit (7.5â6). So, the minister proposed to have an ornament made out of iron and to give it to the prince to wear. This plan was executed and upon giving the ornament the minister added: âDear prince, these jewels are your kingly inheritance. Keep them safe. If anyone would come up to you to say that they are made of iron, then do not give them away, but beat that man up (6.7â10).â The prince did as he was told, stuck to his jewels and struck everyone who called his jewels iron (6.12).
This is how a stubborn-minded (vyudgrÄhin) acts, as one who would never change his mind (6.13â18).â
âNowâ, said Manovega, âI will tell you the story about he who suffered from bile disease (7.19).â
1.6 The Story of the Bilious (pittadūṣita)
There was a man who was afflicted by gall disease. To fight the disease, he was given milk mixed with sugar (7.21). The fool drank this concoction in the hopes of being cured believing that it was neem juice (7.22).10 In this way, one who is affected by the bilious disease of ignorance and false belief, is indiscriminate of right and wrong (7.23).
âLet me now continue with the story of the mango treeâ, said Manovega (7.28).
1.7 The Story of the Mango Tree
âIn the country of Aá¹ ga there was the city of CampÄ, where King Ná¹paÅekhara lived (7.29â30). He received the fruit of a mango from the king of Bengal (7.33). He was very pleased with this gift (7.34) and praised the beneficial characteristics of mangoes (7.35â36). Because the king wanted to yield many fruits, he ordered his forester to plant the mango in the forest so that a tree would grow from it (7.36â37). Thus, the forester did, and the tree grew very big (7.39). At some point, a snake was picked up by a bird flying over the tree, and a drop of its poison fell on the fruit (7.40). This fruit ripened into a very beautiful mango but filled with poison (7.41). The forester happily saw the mango and brought it to the king (7.43). This one then gave it to the prince to eat (7.44). Unfortunately, because of the poison in the mango, the prince died immediately (7.45). Finding his son dead, the king was enraged and ordered to cut down the tree (7.47). Immediately after, the people became depressed and sick since they could no longer benefit from the healthy mangoes (7.48). When they heard about the poison in the mango tree, they all started eating the fruits, longing to be liberated from life (7.49). However, because they ate the healthy fruit, they all became healthy again. When the king heard about this, he was perplexed and felt very bad about what he had done, regretting his thoughtless action (7.51â55).â
âThis is the consequence for those who do not reflect. They act uncritically and afterwards have regrets (7.56â58).â
Then, Manovega continued, telling the Brahmins the story of the milk fool.
1.8 The Story of the Milk Fool (kṣīra)
âIn the country of ChohÄra there was a trader named SÄgaradatta, who travelled the sea and knew every one of its movements (7.63). Once he went to the island of Caula (7.64) and took a cow with him, giving much happiness, like a praise to the Jina (7.65). Having arrived at the island of Caula, the merchant saw a Tomara lord there and presented a gift to this lord. The next day too, SÄgaradatta offered the lord a delicious âmilk dessertâ (pÄyasa) (7.67). And the day after, he did the same (7.68). The Tomara lord, who enjoyed the dairy items a lot, asked the trader: âWhere have you found such divine food?â The trader replied: âI obtained it from my âfamily deityâ (7.71).â Then the king said: âGive me this âfamily deityâ.â The trader replied: âI will give it to you, if you give me what I desire.â And so the king promised (7.72â73).
The following day the king took a bowl to the cow and requested her to give him the same kind of food she had given to the trader, but she remained mute like a clever woman to a lustful man (7.75â76). The next day the king went back to the cow, worshipped her and asked again for food (7.77). Again, the cow did not give anything. Because of this the king got rid of the cow (7.82â85).â
âThis is how fools are: they give away what is precious because they fail to see its potential to obtain wealth (7.83â96). I will now tell you about the agarwood foolâ, said Manovega (8.1).
1.9 The Story of the Agarwood
âIn the country of Magadha there was a king named Gajaratha. Once he went out far from the palace, accompanied only by his second minister (8.3). Seeing a servant, he asked his minister who this man was. The minister replied that the servant was a ploughman (8.5), and that he already worked in the service of the king for twelve years (8.6). The king wanted to reward the ploughman and gave him a central village surrounded by five hundred villages (a maá¹amba). To this the ploughman said: âHow could I take care of five hundred villages (8.12)?â and he elaborated on the virtues of wealth. Then he said to the king to give him only one field to plough (7.22). The king thought that the ploughman did not understand the value of five hundred villages, but still wanted to reward him with something more special. Thus, he told the minister to give him a field of agarwood. The minister accordingly showed the ploughman the field full of agarwood. However, the ploughman was not happy, because he thought that the king had given him a field that was overgrown with useless trees. But he accepted (8.25â28). The ploughman then cut down all the agarwood trees (8.29) and went to the king to show what he had made of the field (8.34). The king, in shock, asked him what he could gain from cutting down the trees. To prove his point, he gave a remaining piece of an agarwood tree to the ploughman and told him to sell it in the market. The ploughman went to the market and acquired five dinÄras for his piece of wood from a trader (8.39). Only at that moment the ploughman realised how stupid he had been to cut down the precious agarwood trees (8.43â44).â
Manovega asked the Brahmins: âIs there someone among you who is unable to discriminate what is strong from what is weak? Because if so, I am afraid to tell more (8.48).â
1.10 The Story of the Sandalwood
âIn MadhyadeÅa in the city of MathurÄ there was a king named ÅÄntamanÄ (8.50). Once the king was extremely sick (8.51). He was treated with some medicine by those trained in the eightfold traditional medicine (Ayurveda), but nothing helped much (8.54). Therefore, his minister made a public announcement that whoever could heal the king from his fever, would be given one hundred villages, many jewels and even clothes worn by the king himself (8.55â57).
A trader, who had gone out of the city to find sandalwood, met a washerman, who was holding on to a piece of sandalwood. The trader asked where the washerman had found the piece of neemwood (8.58â59). The washerman replied he had found it floating in the river. The trader then asked him to give it to him in return for a big pile of wood. This the washerman did (8.61). After this, the trader immediately went to the kingâs palace, grinded the sandalwood and smeared it on the body of the king (8.62). The kingâs fever went away completely (8.63) and the trader was rewarded with what he deserved (8.64). When the washerman heard about the reward for the trader, he cried out of sorrow (8.65). âHow could he have been so deceived by the trader (8.66â69)?ââ¯â
Manovega now addresses the Brahmins: âIf there are such like the washerman among you, then I fear to tell more. If not, I will tell you of another fool.â
1.11 The Story of the Four Fools
âThere were four fools going about playfully when they came across an ascetic named VÄ«ranÄtha, who was very knowledgeable and skilled in religious thought (dharma) (8.74â78). This ascetic was very powerful and could conquer Åiva, Viá¹£á¹u, BrahmÄ, and Indra (8.82). The four fools bowed to the muni and a dharmic feeling arose in them (8.87â88). When the muni had left them, they started to quarrel about whom of the four the muni had blessed (8.89). After fighting for a bit, one said: âWhy are we quarrelling? Let us just ask the muni himself (8.91).â So, they went to the muni and asked: âTo whom did you give the blessing, o muni (8.92)?â The muni replied: âI have given my blessing to the most stupid one among you (8.93).â Since the fools quarreled about who that was, the muni continued: âYou should go to the city and ask the wise people there to judge who is the biggest fool (8.94).â In the city, the fools addressed the people: âDear citizens, listen to each of our stories and tell us who is the most foolish one (9.1â2).â The first fool started:
1.11.1 The Story of Viá¹£ameká¹£aá¹a
âEarlier, I was indulging in pleasure with two fat women. They were stronger than me and beloved by the people but feared by myself (9.5â6). I was once sleeping with both of them, one on each side of me in the bed (9.7). For fun, they had put an oil lamp on my head (9.9). But then, a mouse pushed against the wick of the lamp, so that it fell on my eye and burned it (9.10). I woke up because of the burning feeling and thought: if I push away the wick with my right hand, then the woman on my right will be annoyed, but if I push away the wick with my left hand, then the woman on my left will be disturbed (9.12â13). I did nothing and my eye was completely scorched. Since then, I am called Viá¹£ameká¹£aá¹a (âdefect-eyeâ) (9.16).ââ¯â
Before continuing, Manovega addressed the Brahmins to ask them if there is anyone as submissive to women as this Viá¹£ameká¹£aá¹a. They denied and Manovega continued with what the second fool had to say:
1.11.2 The Story of Kuá¹á¹ahaá¹sagati
ââ¯âI had two women, who were as if created by BrahmÄ, poisonous like the fruits of the gigantic swallow wort (arka), and with long black shanks. Once, one of them was washing my left foot, while the other was washing the right foot (8.24). They were called á¹kṣī (female bear) and KharÄ« (female donkey) (9.25). After she washed my foot, á¹kṣī laid it on top of my other foot. KharÄ« then took a pestle and broke my foot. á¹kṣī shouted out to KharÄ«: âYou whore, why have you done this? (9.28) You should be loyal to your husband (9.29)!â The two women continued to fight in this manner, like two angry demonesses (rÄká¹£asÄ«s) (9.32). Then the second wife took a pestle and broke the second foot (9.33). And I, in fear between the two, remained silent. You see how stupid I am: by remaining silent my feet were broken. From then onwards I was called Kuá¹á¹ahaá¹sagati (âthe one with the gait of a crippled swanâ) (9.35).â
Then, the third fool told his story: (9.43)
1.11.3 The Story of Boá¸a
âOnce, I had gone to the house of my father-in-law to sleep with my beautiful wife. In bed, we agreed to say nothing, and the first one who would speak, would have to give ten apÅ«pa cakes to the other (9.46). We took the game seriously and said nothing. Even when a thief entered the house and took all the belongings, we kept quiet (9.49). Then the thief started to pull off the clothes of my beloved, but I did nothing. She shouted out: âHow could you remain silent, you deceitful man, how could you let me be humiliated in that way (9.50â51)!â All I said to this was: âYou spoke first, so you have to give me the ten cakes (9.53)!â You see how, because of my stupidity, I let all the wealth be taken. Since then, the people call me Boá¸a (âsimpletonâ) (9.55).â
Finally, the fourth fool explained his foolishness (9.59):
1.11.4 The Story of Gallasphoá¹ika
âOnce, I had gone to the house of my father-in-law to sleep with my wife (9.60). Her mother gave me plenty of delicious food items, but I did not eat them, ashamed as I was (9.61). On the third day, feeling sick in my belly because of the fire [of hunger] that was like the world-destroying fire (kÄlÄnala) (9.64), I saw a large vessel filled with rice under the bed, shining like the rays of the moon (9.66). As I was so hungry, I filled my mouth with rice. Upon that moment my love came in (9.68). She was worried and brought me to her mother to find out what was wrong with me (9.69). Soon all the women of the village came by to look at me, speculating what could have happened and in which way I had become ill (9.73â76). Then a healer came by, convincing my mother-in-law that he would heal me (9.77). I was shown to him and he squeezed my cheeks, so he could feel the food inside my mouth. When he then also noticed the bowl of rice under the bed, he said: âI will heal him from this difficult disease, but it will cost some money (9.81).â Then the healer opened my cheeks and showed the women my mouth filled with worms that looked like rice (9.83). Then he took them out and left with his reward. I stood there, foolish but healed (9.84). As of then the people called me laughingly Gallasphoá¹ika (âtumors-in-the-cheeksâ) (9.85).â
After each of the four fools had told their stories, the citizens told them they were all fools (9.89) and that they should go back to the wise man [VÄ«ranÄtha].â
Manovega then addressed the Brahmins: âThese were the four fools. If such are among you, then I fear to tell further. For an inconsiderate person there is no virtue, etc. (9.92). Only an intelligent man can reach liberation (9.94â95).â
âNowâ, said Manovega, âI have told you about all the ten foolsâ (10.3). Although the Brahmins confirmed that they were not like any of them, and are capable of thinking, Manovega spoke in doubt: âThe words of one who does not carry books, wears good shoes or nice clothes are often not believed. Therefore, I fear to tell more (10. 6â8).â But the Brahmins again reassured him. So Manovega went on:
1.12 Critique of Viá¹£á¹u
âLet me tell you about Viá¹£á¹u (10.11), who is the creator, maintainer and destroyer of the world, with his disc, club, conch and bow, who killed demons, etc. (10.12â16). Why would you see him as the supreme god? (10.17). How could he be so, if he stayed with the cowherd community of Nanda to protect cows, when he was playing games with the cowherders all the time, or if he was a messenger to Duryodhana under the order of the PÄá¹á¸avas as a charioteer of Arjuna (10.20â23)? Why would he make a request to Bali in the form of a dwarf, like a beggar (10.24)? If he is upholding the whole world, why then would he be burned by the separation from SÄ«tÄ (10.25)? If Muraâs slayer Viá¹£á¹u can play in all such acts, then why could we not be wood sellers (10.28)?â
The Brahmins, upon hearing this, answered that he was right (10.30). âIf the parts of Viá¹£á¹u (his avatÄras) are full of passion, then how can he be without passion (10.35)? If he carries the world in his belly, then how could SÄ«tÄ be abducted beyond it (10.36)? If this god pervades everything, then how could he have been pained by separation from his beloved (10.37)? Why did he take on the form of a fish, a turtle, a boar, a lion, a dwarf and three times RÄma (10.40)?11 Why did he first create the demons and then kill them; who would do ill to his own sons (10.43)? How could a god have emerged from a uterus which is defiled with fat, blood, flesh, bone, marrow and semen (10.45)?â12
Eventually the Brahmins replied: âYou have convinced us in this debate, we have to change our minds about this god (10.46â49).â
1.13 Jain View of Viá¹£á¹u
Upon this, Manovega together with Pavanavega went outside of the city (10.46). There, in the bushes, Manovega told Pavanavega about the sixty-three ÅalÄkÄpuruá¹£as (âillustrious beingsâ) (10.54). Of these, there are twelve cakravartins, twenty-four arhats, nine like RÄma (baladevas), nine like Ká¹á¹£á¹a (vÄsudevas) and nine foes (prativÄsudevas) (10.55). âThe Brahmins call Viá¹£á¹u the supreme lord, but in fact he is the last of the VÄsudevas (10.57). They call him bodiless and nevertheless worship him in ten avatÄras (10.60). And what do they not tell about Bali! They say that in order to subject the evil Brahmin Bali, Viá¹£á¹u became a dwarf and bound Bali in three steps (10.65). You see how corrupted their PurÄá¹a is.â
2 Second Entry into PÄá¹alÄ«putra
Next, Manovega turned himself into a tribesman (a Pulinda) with black skin and matted locks, and Pavanavega became a black cat with reddened eyes (10.66â67).13 In this form they entered the city and approached the Brahmins. They sat on a golden throne and beat the drum. The Brahmins asked them why they are seated on a throne and beating the drum, and why they had come. Manovega replied that he was in the city to sell his cat (10.74) and that this cat had the ability to smell things from twelve yojanas away (10.76). For that reason, he asked a price of fifty palas (10.77).14 The Brahmins discussed and decided to give the price he asked (10.80). When they had quickly taken the cat, they noticed its ears were disfigured. They asked about this deformity (10.82). Manovega told them: âWhen we are tired, we usually sleep in a place that is full of mice (10.83). While my cat was deeply asleep some mice nibbled its ears (10.84).â The Brahmins laughed: âIf the cat can smell mice from twelve yojanas away, then why would it let mice nibble its ears (10.86)?â To this Manovega wisely said: âNow just because of one mistake, do all other virtues just disappear (10.87)? It is just like the frog in the well. Once, a virtuous bird was asked by the frog how big the ocean was where he came from. The swan replied that the ocean was the biggest. The frog asked then how big the sea was. The swan replied: âIt is very large.â The frog finally asked: âCan it be bigger than my well?â You see, when truth is not believed, one is like the frog unable to understand it (10.94â97).â
The Brahmins insisted that they were no fools and fully capable of believing a truthful statement; to which Manovega continued:
2.1 The Story of ChÄyÄ
âThere was an ascetic called Maá¹á¸apakauÅika. Once, a group of ascetics came to sit and eat with him, but immediately they stood up again. (11.5). Maá¹á¸apakauÅika asked: âWhy are you getting up, looking at me as if I am a dog?â (11.6). The ascetics replied: âYou are expelled from our group of ascetics, because you have taken asceticism as a boy, without first having a son. Therefore, you will never progress on the ascetic path (11.7â8).â So Maá¹á¸apakauÅika went to his relatives to ask for a bride, but they could not give him one as he had become too old (11.9). Thus, he asked the ascetics for advice (11.10). They told him he should marry a widow and become a householder (11.11). He then took a widow as bride and begot a daughter, who was devout, beautiful and charming. She was called ChÄyÄ (11.13â18). When she was eight years old, her parents wanted to go on pilgrimage and had to find a trustworthy god to protect her while they were gone (11.18â21). âBut no manâ, they thought, âwould not want to have intercourse with her (11.21). Rudra (Åiva) was always burned up by love. He left PÄrvatÄ« to be with Gaá¹ gÄ. How could they leave their daughter with him (11.25)? Hari (Viá¹£á¹u) was not even satisfied by 16000 milk maids (gopÄ«s). He left ÅrÄ« (PadmÄ) and fooled around with the milk maids (11.27).â They would not leave their daughter with him.
2.1.1 The Story of BrahmÄ and TilottamÄ
âWhen BrahmÄ saw the dance [of TilottamÄ], he let go of all his discipline, to obtain the beautiful girl (11.29).15 Once, he was performing such austere ascetic practice that the seat of Indra became unstable. Indra went to Bá¹haspati for help, who informed that it had become unstable because of BrahmÄâs ascetic practice. So, Indra ordered him to create a woman who would destroy BrahmÄâs ascetic practice (11.33). Bá¹haspati then made a woman out of tiny bits of goddesses, and he sent forth this TilottamÄ (âthe most excellent one made of tiny bitsâ) (11.34â35). She came before BrahmÄ and revealed to him her sensuous body (11.36â38). BrahmÄâs eyes did not know where to look first, running all over her body (11.39). He who had performed tapas for a thousand years, lusting for her, formed a new head (a fifth) to perceive her better (11.43). It was the head of a donkey (11.45). TilottamÄ then left BrahmÄ and he became deeply ashamed. When the gods came to see him, he became angry and started attacking them (11.49). So, Åiva approached BrahmÄ and cut off that fifth head (11.51). BrahmÄ rose in anger and cursed him that his donkey head would never fall off of Åivaâs hand (11.52). Only by the blood of Viá¹£á¹u could it fall off (11.54). Upon these words, Åiva became the âskull bearerâ (kapÄlÄ«) and went to Viá¹£á¹u to remove his sin. BrahmÄ in the meantime entered a dense forest (10.57) where he came across a female bear and had sexual intercourse with her. To him even a female donkey would look like an apsaras. The bear brought forth a son called JÄmbava (11.59). How could BrahmÄ, who even had intercourse with an animal, ever take care of our daughter, ChÄyÄ (11.60)?â âIndra became aroused upon seeing the wife of Gautama, AhalyÄ, and was cursed by him to have a thousand vulvas (11.61â62). But the gods asked him to have mercy, and out of compassion, he changed them into a thousand eyes (11.63). There seems to be only one god who is pure and just, and that is Yama (11.65). I will give my daughter to him while I am on pilgrimage,â thought Mandapa KauÅika (11.66). And so, the couple went. Yama immediately fell in love with the girl (11.68) and out of fear of losing her, he swallowed her so that she would stay in his belly (11.69). Every day he would have sexual intercourse with her and then put her back inside his belly (11.70). Then at some point, VÄyu, the god of wind, spoke about it to Agni (11.73): âYou know that Yama has obtained a beautiful wife whom he enjoys a lot.â To this Agni asked: âHow can I obtain her (11.76)?â VÄyu explained: âShe is kept in Yamaâs belly, but every day for one yÄma (one eighth of the day) when he recites the aghamará¹£aá¹a hymn,16 he takes her out (11.79).â Then Agni went to Yamaâs place and when Yama had taken her out and had entered the Ganges to expiate his sins, Agni embraced her (11.83). ChÄyÄ felt equally desirous for Agni and they consummated their desire. Then ChÄyÄ warned him: âYou should go, Yama will come soon (11.85).â But Agni could not be separated from her and thus she swallowed him so that he would be inside of her belly (11.89). Then, when Yama came back, he put ChÄyÄ inside his own belly (11.90). As a consequence, Agni was completely gone from the world and no one could perform a sacrifice or cook food anymore (11.91). Indra requested VÄyu to search for him, but he could not find Agni anywhere. There was one place where he did not look though (11.92â93). VÄyu prepared a meal and invited all the gods. He gave each god one seat to sit on, and to Yama he gave three seats (11.94). Each god got one portion and Yama got three (11.95). Seeing the three portions, Yama asked: âWhy did you give me thrice as much? (12.1) Even if you gave me a second portion for my beloved inside me, why did you give me a third (12.2)?â After Yama spat out ChÄyÄ, VÄyu said to her: âYou should spit out Agni.â This she did, and all the gods were perplexed (12.5). Yama felt betrayed and angrily he chased Agni with his club (12.6). Agni (i.e. fire) fled into stone and wood.17 He is now never seen outside of it (12.10).â
âIsnât this in your PurÄá¹as?â Manovega asked. The Brahmins acknowledged this (12.11). Manovega added: âIn the same way Agni kept his qualities, my cat, although its ears were cut off, kept its qualities (12.13â14).â The Brahmins completely agreed that their PurÄá¹as were invalid. Manovega further taught them: âYou see how beautiful women pierce the minds of all men, even the gods (12.19). Åiva left his meditation and took up PÄrvatÄ« as half of his body (12.20), Viá¹£á¹u left ÅrÄ« for the milk maids (12.21), BrahmÄ gave up his virtuous conduct for the dance of a beautiful apsaras (12.22), Indra obtained a thousand vulvas (12.23), Yama kept ChÄyÄ inside of him (12.24) and Agni fled into trees and rocks (12.25).â
After this discussion, the two vidyÄdharas went out of the city. Manovega instructed Pavanavega (12.27): âThis is how the gods are, all of them are characterized by eight virtues, including minuteness (aá¹iman) etc., but frivolity (laghiman) is certainly foremost (12.29).18 Åiva ejaculated prematurely from PÄrvatÄ«âs touch during their wedding, and while dancing, he agitated female ascetics, and suffered the intolerable pain of his penis (liá¹ ga) being cut off. Indra was subdued by AhalyÄ; Agni and Yama by ChÄyÄ; and SÅ«rya by KuntÄ«. There is not a single god, worshipped by men, who is not corrupted by lust (12.33).â
Then Manovega told him of the decapitation of the donkey head (12.34):
2.2 Åiva and BrÄhmaá¹Ä«
âWhen Åiva, who was born from the womb of Jyeá¹£á¹hÄ as a son of SÄtyaki, had done extreme ascetic practice he was made supreme lord of vidyÄs (embodied powers). He acquired 500 great vidyÄs and 700 small ones, like the ocean acquires rivers (12.36). But by looking at the beautiful vidyÄs he broke his ascetic practice. When he married eight pretty vidyÄdhara girls, none of the girls could bear intercourse with him (12.38). Once, when he had had sex with his triÅÅ«la vidyÄ, she fled away (12.41). Therefore, he was eager to obtain another vidyÄ, namely BrÄhmaá¹Ä« (12.42). He installed her image before him and started to pray so that she would become a woman (12.43). She started dancing and playing music and he watched her carefully (12.44). Looking at her, he noticed her husband BrahmÄ (12.45). When he noticed the head of a donkey on top of his head, he cut it off (12.46). But the head stuck to his hand (12.47). BrÄhmaá¹Ä« as a consequence ran to Åiva (12.48). Then, Åiva saw the image of a Jina on the cremation ground. He bowed before it and touched its feet. Because of this gesture, the head fell from his hand (12.51).â
âLet me now show you something elseâ, said Manovega to his friend, and he took the form of a seer (á¹á¹£Ä«) (12.53).19
3 Third Entry into PÄá¹alÄ«putra
Together they went through the western gate to enter PÄá¹alÄ«putra again (12.54). Seated on a golden throne they beat the kettledrum. Like before, the Brahmins approached them and asked them why they were beating the drum, who their guru is, and why they had renounced (12.55â60). Manovega replied that he did not have a guru, and that he was afraid of telling them the truth about his renunciation. To illustrate his fear, he told them a story (12.62):
3.1 The Story of the King, the Minister, and the Singing Monkeys
âThere was a minister named Hari in CampÄ. Once he saw a rock floating in the water (12.63). The king did not believe him and imprisoned his minister (12.64). But the minister then withdrew his words and told the king he had indeed lied, so that he would be released (12.66). Next, the minister taught some monkeys to sing a song and showed this to the king (12.68). When the king, charmed by the monkeys, wanted to show it to his lords, the monkeys stopped singing (12.69). The minister told them: âO lords, our king must be mad, we should lock him up (12.70).â But when the minister had had his laugh with the king, he let him go (12.71) and added: âYou see, in the same way as I saw a stone floating in the water, you saw monkeys sing a song (12.72).ââ¯â
After this story, the Brahmins ensured Manovega that they were not foolish and would recognize when something is said with a reason (12.75). So Manovega went on (12.76):
3.2 The Story of the Elephant in the Waterpot
âMy father was a disciple of Munidatta in the city of ÅrÄ«pura and ordered me to study with this guru (12.77). One day, Munidatta told me to go fetch some water. I took a water pot and went to get some (12.78). When I came back, the other students told me the muni was angry with me (12.79). Hearing this, I thought: âThere are other teachers in other citiesâ, so I left (12.80). At some point on my way, I came across an elephant who moved as if he was intoxicated (12.81). Trembling in fear I then noticed the water pot in my hands and jumped right in it (12. 83â84). I thought I was saved, but the elephant followed me full of rage, ready to tear off my clothes (12.85). Finding all my energy I jumped back out of the water pot (12.86). The elephant wanted to do the same, but he could not do it because his tail got stuck to the opening of the water pot (12.87). Freed from the terrifying elephant, I saw a temple of the Jina. I praised the Jina and from exhaustion, completely naked from the fight, I fell asleep on the threshold of the temple (12.89). When I thought about who could give me some clothes, I figured that no one there could give any as they were all naked. So, I decided to enter their community as an ascetic (12.90). Then I started wandering around the country and came upon this city (12.91). That is how I became a renunciant (12.92).â
The Brahmins laughed and told Manovega he was lying, that all the stories he had told were just impossible (12.92â95). Manovega agreed but added that such lies are also told in the Brahmins, PurÄá¹as (12.96â97). The Brahmins replied critically: âIf this is in our PurÄá¹as, then tell us how (13.1).â Manovega first declined, stating that he was afraid of telling them (13.3â4). But when the Brahmins insisted (13.5), he started to narrate (13.6):
âOnce Yudhiá¹£á¹hira asked in an assembly who would be able to bring the serpents from the underworld (13.7). Arjuna stood up and said he would go to get the serpent king and seven ascetics (muni) (13.8). He first pointed his bow at the earth and pierced it with his arrows (13.9). Together with his army of ten crore, he went down and took the serpent king (13.10). If the serpent king and an army of ten crore can pass through a hole made by an arrow, then why not an elephant through the opening of a water pot (13.11â12)?â
âBut how would the vase not break with an elephant inside it?â said the Brahmins (13.15). Manovega said: âIn your sacred scriptures, it is said that Agastya drank the whole ocean. If the whole ocean can fit into his belly, then why not an elephant in the water pot (13.18â19)?â
3.3 The Story of How BrahmÄ Became âthe Lotus Seatedâ
âIn search of his lost creation, BrahmÄ was wandering around the earth when he stumbled upon Agastya sitting under a tree (13.20â21). Muni Agastya saluted him and asked why he was wandering around (13.22). BrahmÄ told him that he was looking for his creation and could not find it (13.23). Then, Agastya replied that he should go into his water pot, which stood next to him, and that he would find his creation there (13.24). Inside Agastyaâs water-pot, BrahmÄ saw Viá¹£á¹u lying on the leaf of a fig tree (13.25). BrahmÄ asked the god why his belly was so round. Viá¹£á¹u told him that when he saw how BrahmÄâs creation was being destroyed in an ocean, he put it inside his belly as to protect it (13.27). BrahmÄ thanked him, and following Viá¹£á¹uâs advice, entered his belly (13.31). There, finally seeing his creation again, BrahmÄ felt even more happy (13.32). After a while he wanted to get back out of the belly through Viá¹£á¹uâs lotus navel (13.33), but a hair of his scrotum got stuck in the narrow navel (13.34). From then onwards BrahmÄ is famous in the world as the lotus seated (13.36).â
âIs this not told in your PurÄá¹as?â said Manovega (13.37). The Brahmins confirmed that this was true (13.38) Then, Manovega went back to his own story: âIf the hair of BrahmÄ is stuck in the hole of a navel, then why not the hair of an elephant in the hole of a water pot (13.39)? If the whole world fits into a water pot, then why would not an elephant (13.41)? If Viá¹£á¹u had put the whole universe inside his belly, then where could he stay, and where could BrahmÄ wander? (13.42). If BrahmÄ is all-pervading and all-knowing, then why could he not find his creation (13.44)? He who was able to pull all men out of hell, why could he not pull his own pubic hair out of a navel (13.45)? If Viá¹£á¹u could save the whole world, then why could he not save SÄ«tÄ from abduction (13.46)? If all misfortunes are annihilated by reciting his name, why can he himself not annihilate the misfortune of his separation from SÄ«tÄ (13.48)? If this god explained his ten births to NÄrada, then why did he have to ask the lord of snakes about his wife (13.49)?â
3.4 The Faults in the Gods
âWho [but the Jina] is able to straighten the people who are crooked by the wind of eternal false belief in one hundred births (13.51)? Anger, thirst, fear, hatred, passion, delusion, craze, disease, thought, birth, old age, death, sadness, perplexity, sexual pleasure, exhaustion, heat, and sleep are the eighteen worldly faults (doá¹£a) that cause suffering (13.52â53). (1) The fire of anger burns the body, so that the five senses do not function. (2) Thirst destroys enjoyment, laughter, excitement etc. (3) Fear makes the body tremble and the voice disappear. (4) Hatred causes anger for nothing and blame without reason. (5) Passion blocks the five senses, causes harm to others and the inability to distinguish wrong from right. (6) Delusion causes attachment to relatives. (7) Craze gets everyone into bad behaviour. (8) Disease of three types stresses the body. (9) Thoughts make people worry about friendship, wealth, sons, lovers, fame, and pleasure. (10) Birth is repeated over and over and causes unhappiness. (11) Old age destroys the mind and turns men into slaves. (12) The word death itself inspires fear. (13) Sadness caused by loss of friends, family and wealth takes away life. (14) Perplexity is characteristic for those without knowledge. (15) Pleasure is taken by vile people in a body that is full of impurity. (16) Exhaustion causes agitation and crushes the body of a weak person. (17) The body breaks out in sweat when working. (18) Fatigue blinds a person to confuse good from evil. (13.54â71).
Åiva had a skull disease, Viá¹£á¹u was ill in his head, the Sun suffered from jaundice, the Moon from leprosy. Viá¹£á¹u was affected by fatigue, Agni by hunger, Åiva by pleasure, and BrahmÄ by passion. By these faults the gods are affected (13.75).
The universe arose from the contact between BrahmÄâs semen and the water and was then divided into three parts. If that is true, wherefrom would water first have originated? It could not be from the sky. Or wherefrom would a body have originated to create the universe? (13.79â81). How could the universe, which is material, be created by a bodiless creator? If there is a creator who is pure, eternal, bodiless and all-knowing, what fruits would have come from creating the world? (13.83â86). Your PurÄá¹as are full of illogical elements, why should they be believed (13.87)? When the Brahmins remained silent, Manovega took Pavanavega outside of the city and told him (13. 88):
Why should we follow Viá¹£á¹u, BrahmÄ, and Åiva (13.90)? The world is without beginning or end, there is no creator. The gods, Viá¹£á¹u, Åiva, and Indra, are as much affected by their own failures (13.92â94). How could those that are blinded tell others about the path to liberation (13.96)? Just like gold is examined by beating, rubbing, heating and cutting it, dharma should be examined by the virtues of compassion, asceticism, truthfulness, and restraint (13.99). The wise who want to know what is right, examine a god with a god, a ÅÄstra with a ÅÄstra, a dharma with a dharma, an ascetic with an ascetic (13. 101). A god is one who has destroyed karma, dharma is that which can destroy the faults of the passions etc., a ÅÄstra manifests truth (13.102).â20
4 The Fourth Entry into PÄá¹alÄ«putra
When Manovega had explained all this, he abandoned the form of a seer (á¹á¹£i) and again entered PÄá¹alÄ«putra with Pavanavega, this time in the form of an ascetic (tÄpasa) through the northern gate (14.1â2). Again, they sat on a golden throne, beating the kettledrum, and again the Brahmins approached them to ask them what theories or debates they knew (14.3â4). Manovega replied that he came from a village and did not know any theories (14.5). He suggested to tell his story but is afraid that they will not believe him. Again, the Brahmins urge him to speak (14.7â9). So Manovaga narrated:
4.1 The Story of the Child Who Stayed in His Motherâs Womb for Twelve Years
âMy mother lived in Ujjain. She was a princess. When she married my father, an elephant became excited by the sound of the trumpets and caused an uproar at the wedding. He destroyed the pole he was tied to, and everyone fled (14.12â13). While the groom was fleeing, he pushed my helpless mother to the ground with his body (14.14). After that, one and a half months later, it became clear that my mother was pregnant. Her mother asked: âHow come you are pregnant?â She answered: âI would not know, except for the body of the groom (14.17).â Then some ascetics came by our house, and my grandmother asked them where they were heading. They told her that they were going to a place where there would be enough food, as there was to be a famine of twelve years (14.18â19). When I, inside the womb, heard this, I feared for my life. And I decided to stay in the womb for twelve years, so I would not have to experience famine (14.21â23). My mother travelled with the ascetics for twelve years, until they told my grandfather: âNow we will go to our own country where food is abundant.â Hearing this I wanted to leave my motherâs body (14.26). When I was born, I fell into the ashes of the fireplace and stood up holding a vessel, asking my mother for food (14.27â28). Amazed, my grandmother exclaimed: âDear ascetics, have you ever seen anyone who started begging upon birth (14.29)?â The ascetics replied that my birth would cause the destruction of the house (14.30). So, my mother ordered me to leave and go to the temple of Yama (14.31). So, I went away, my body covered with ashes and performing difficult asceticism (14.34). At some point I went to the city of SÄketa and heard that my mother was marrying another man (14.35). I asked the Brahmins if this was not sinful of her. They replied that just like DraupadÄ« married the five PÄá¹davas, my mother could marry another man. If a womanâs husband has died and she has not been pregnant, she may marry again (14.38). If a womanâs husband is gone and she has given birth, she must wait eight years; when she has not given birth only four (14.39). Such was said by VyÄsa (14.40). After that, I stayed with the ascetics and then went on a pilgrimage. Thus, I arrived here (14.41â42).â
The Brahmins reacted angrily since they thought this was all untrue (14.43). Manovega, however, replied that such things were also said in the PurÄá¹as, just like the killing of BrahmÄ is told there. (14.48) âThe words of VaÅiá¹£á¹ha, VyÄsa, and Manu are connected to the Veda, therefore they are authoritative. One who does not consider them as authority, does not understand the killing of BrahmÄ (14.50).â To this the Brahmins objected, and they asked Manovega to then explain with logic how this would be so in the PurÄá¹as. (14.52â54). So Manovega argued:
âIt is said in your texts that BhÄgÄ«rathÄ«, while sleeping next to another woman, was impregnated just because of the touch of that woman. (14.56) Why could my mother then not be impregnated by the mere touch of my father (14.57)? It is said that GÄndhÄrÄ« was promised to Dhá¹tarÄá¹£tra, and that while bathing, her womb became enlarged from the embrace with a jackfruit-tree (14.59). Then after she was married, she bore a hundred sons of Dhá¹tarÄá¹£á¹ra (14.61). Isnât this all in your PurÄá¹as (14.62)?â The Brahmins admitted this was true, and that Manovegaâs story must thus also be true. (14.64â65).
Manovega continued: âIf Abhimanyu heard about the cakravyÅ«ha inside the womb of his mother, then my story should also be true (14.67).â21
4.2 The Story of Mandodarī
âMuni Maya was once washing his private parts when drops of his semen fell in the water and were ingested by a frog, which then became pregnant (14.68). She gave birth to a beautiful daughter (14.69) and put the girl on a lotus petal, as she understood the girl did not belong in the frog family (14.70). When the ascetic came back to the lake, he saw the girl. Recognizing her as his daughter he decided to raise her (14.71â72). When the girl had reached puberty and had started to menstruate, she once washed the loin cloth of muni Maya (14.73) and thus she became pregnant. The ascetic realized it was from his own semen and suppressed her womb for seven thousand years (14.74â75). After that, she married RÄvaá¹a and gave birth to a son named Indrajit (14.77). If Indrajit could stay inside the womb of his mother for seven thousand years, then why not I (14.78)?â
The Brahmins replied that this was true, but they asked how his mother could become a virgin (kanyÄ) again (14.79â80). Manovega replied:
4.3 The Story of VyÄsaâs Birth
âThere was an ascetic named PÄrÄÅara, honored by all other ascetics (14.81). Once, he crossed the Ganges in a boat operated by a girl from a fishermanâs family (14.82). Pierced by the arrows of KÄma, he had intercourse with her (14.83). The child, afraid of being cursed, went along in his embrace (14.84). Shortly after their intercourse, a son was born named VyÄsa (14.85â86). He immediately asked what to do; upon which PÄrÄÅara told him to perform asceticism (14.87). PÄrÄÅara himself endowed the girl with the name YojanagandhÄ and went to his ashram (14. 88).
If VyÄsa could become an ascetic immediately after birth, then why could I not? (14.89). And even if she had a son, the fishermanâs girl could remain a virgin, then why could my mother not (14.90)? In the same way KuntÄ« could remain a virgin, even after her union with the Sun god.â
4.4 The Story of UddÄlaka
âOnce, while having a dream, the ascetic UddÄlakaâs sperm trickled out into the Ganges and then he took his seat on a lotus petal (14.92). The daughter of the king, CandramatÄ«, then came to the Ganges and while smelling that lotus his semen entered her womb (14.94). When her mother saw that she was pregnant, she told the king, who sent his daughter to the woods (14.95). There the princess gave birth to a son that looked like a snake in the abode of muni Tá¹á¹abindu. The princess put her child in a basket and placed it in the Ganges hoping that it would find his father (14.97). UddÄlaka luckily saw the basket and recognized his son, and took care of him (14.98). CandramatÄ« then also came there and saw both UddÄlaka and her son. She requested the ascetic to ask the king for her hand in marriage (14.100). UddÄlaka did, and CandramatÄ« became his wife. (14.101). So, if CandramatÄ« could become a virgin again, then why not my mother? (15.1)â By this, the Brahmins were silenced. Manovega and Pavanavega went out of the city and gave up their disguise as ascetics (15.2).
Then Manovega told Pavanavega: âDear friend, anyone who is possessed of false belief would not reflect upon the popular contradictory PurÄá¹asâ (15.3), and he went on repeating the illogical ways in which the women from the previous stories became pregnant (15.4â11): âIf sons are born from gods having intercourse with women, then why not from men having intercourse with goddesses (15.12)? How could the gods love the impure bodies of women (15.13)? Gods and ascetics have intercourse with girls and make them virgins again. Those men who sleep with the wives of others, they are just rogues (15.16).â
4.5 The Birth of Kará¹a
âDear friend, I will tell you about the birth of King Kará¹a as it is told in the teachings of the Jina (15.17). King VyÄsa had three sons: Dhá¹tarÄá¹£á¹ra, PÄá¹á¸u, and Vidura. (15.18). One day, PÄá¹á¸u was enjoying himself in the woods when he found the wish-fulfilling ring of a vidyÄdhara (15.19). The moment he put the ring around his finger, the vidyÄdhara CitrÄá¹ ga arrived there searching for it (15.20). PÄá¹á¸u, not wanting to desire for what is anotherâs possession, gave it back to him (15.21). The vidyÄdhara therefore saw him as a friend (v. 23) and asked how he could help him (15.24). PÄá¹á¸u explained that he was in love with KuntÄ«, the daughter of King Andhakavá¹á¹£á¹i of SÅ«ryapura (15.25â26), but that she would never marry him, because of his blindness (15.27). CitrÄá¹ gada consoled him: âIf you take this ring, KuntÄ« will fall in love with you (15.30) and sleep with you. When she is then pregnant, the king will definitely give her to you, as no honourable man would leave a spoiled girl in his house (15.31).â So PÄá¹á¸u went to KuntÄ« with the ring and, in the form of KÄma, made love to her (15.33). She became pregnant and had to give birth to the child in secret (15.36). She then put her son in a basket on the Ganges (15.37). King Äditya of CampÄ saw the basket with the child in it (15.38) and when he opened it, the child grabbed his ear. Therefore, the king named him Kará¹a (15.40) and raised him like his own (15.41). After the king had passed away, Kará¹a became the king (v. 42). After Andhakavá¹á¹£á¹i had understood what had happened to his daughter, he married her to PÄá¹á¸u, like GÄndhÄrÄ« to Dhá¹tarÄá¹£á¹rÄ (15.45) This is the story of Kará¹aâs birth. It is different from the version in the PurÄá¹as that was told by VyÄsa (15.46).â
Manovega went on: âThere are different types of relationships that exist in the world, but never was there the relationship of one woman with five men (15.48â49). VyÄsa was the son of YojanagandhÄ and King PÄrÄÅara, who is different from the ascetic PÄrÄÅara (15.50â51). Duryodhana was the son of GÄndhÄrÄ« and Dhá¹tarÄá¹£á¹ra (15.52). The PÄá¹á¸avas are the sons of KuntÄ« and MÄdrÄ« (15.52). Kará¹a served the sons of GÄndhÄrÄ«, the PÄá¹á¸avas were helped by JarÄsandha and KeÅava (15.53). Ká¹á¹£á¹a killed JarÄsandha in battle and became king (15.54). The sons of KuntÄ« reached liberation by performing asceticism, the two sons of MÄdrÄ« also attained perfection (15.55). Duryodhana and his brothers followed the teachings of the Jina and went to the third heaven (15.56). VyÄsa has the PurÄá¹as in a different way (15.75). When he composed the MahÄbhÄrata, he thought: âIf a useless work can become famous, then a ÅÄstra that is full of contradictions can also become widespread (15.59).â This Brahmin (VyÄsa) buried his pot on the banks of the Ganges and put a pile of sand on top of it [to find it] (15.60). All people seeing that pile of sand, started building piles themselves (15.61). When that Brahmin had taken his bath, he did not recognize where he had put his pot (15.62). And so, he thought: âWithout reflection people follow what they have seen. Thus, my corrupted ÅÄstra will become famous (15.64â66).â The PurÄá¹as are popular but not scrutinized by wise people (15.67).â
5 Fifth Entry into PÄá¹alÄ«putra
Then Manovega changed the subject: âI will tell you yet another tale, dear friend!â and he put on a red garb (15.68). They both entered the city through the fifth gate and sat on a golden throne and beat the kettledrum (15.69). The Brahmins approached them and asked if they were wise men (15.70). Manovega told them he did not know any theory. When they replied that they did not believe him, he said that he feared for their response. To this, the Brahmins told him not to fear (15.71â74).
5.1 The Story of the Two Buddhists
So Manovega told them that they are sons of Buddhists (15.75). Once, they had to protect the clothes of the monks lying outside to dry (15.76), when two jackals approached and frightened them (15.77). âWe climbed onto a stÅ«pa, but the two jackals lifted up the stÅ«pa and flew with it into the sky (15.78). Hearing our cries, the monks appeared, and the jackals flew twelve yojanas away (15.79).22 They dropped the stÅ«pa and stood ready to devour us. But then, hunters with dogs and weapons arrived there (15.80). The two jackals fled (15.81). Then we went along with the hunters and arrived in some city far away from our own city without any travel provisions (15.82â83). We decided to practice asceticism in the way it has come down through our family (15.84). Wandering around the earth we have arrived here (15.87). This was our story.â
The Brahmins replied: âThis must be a lie (15.89).â But Manovega argued: âEveryone looks at the fault of others but not of oneâs self (15.92).â
5.2 The Story of Building the Bridge to Laá¹ kÄ
âIn your PurÄá¹as there is the following story (15.94). When RÄma, who had killed TriÅiras, Khara, etc., stayed in the forest with Laká¹£maá¹a and SÄ«tÄ, RÄvaá¹a appeared there in the form of a golden deer and took SÄ«tÄ (15.95â96). After RÄma allied with King SugrÄ«va, the latter sent HanumÄn to find news about SÄ«tÄ (15.97). HanumÄn went to Laá¹ kÄ and saw SÄ«tÄ with the RÄká¹£asas. So RÄma ordered the monkeys to build a bridge in the water of the ocean (15.98). All the monkeys picked up huge rocks, as if it were a game, and built the bridge. (16.1) Isnât the story told in this way by VÄlmÄ«ki (16.2)?â
The Brahmins confirmed this (16.3). Then Manovega asked them: âSo if a monkey can pick up mountains, then why could two jackals not pick up a stÅ«pa? (16.4â5). You say your story is true and mine is not. I cannot see anything but emptiness (ÅÅ«nyatÄ) of thoughts (16.6).23 If your theory is like this then your gods and beliefs must also be false (16.7)!â After that, they both went out of the city and took off their red garb (16.9). Pavanavega started asking his friend why the monkeys were not killed by the RÄká¹£asas, where the gods were with their eight guá¹as, and how the monkeys could lift up the rocks and remain standing in the waters of the ocean, or why Åiva would give a boon to RÄvaá¹a so that he cannot be killed (16.11â16). Manovega explained: âThere are no monkeys like SugrÄ«va, or RÄká¹£asas like RÄvaá¹a. They are all humans, followers of the Jina. (16.17â18) They were called monkeys because they had a monkey as the emblem in their flag, and the RÄká¹£asas because they had a RÄká¹£asa as the emblem in their flag. (16.19). This is how Gautama explained it to Årenika. (16.20) Now, I will present to you another story.â And they both took the form of a ÅvetÄmbara monk (16.21).
6 Sixth Entry into PÄá¹alÄ«putra
They went back to the city, through the sixth gate, sat on the golden throne and beat the kettledrum. The Brahmins asked them anew if they have a guru, or what argument they could give. The vidyÄdhara told them that they had no guru. So, the Brahmins asked them why they were performing asceticism (16.22â27).
6.1 The Story of the Two Brothers and the Kapiá¹á¹ha (âWood Appleâ) Tree
Manovega then told them that they were two brothers, sons of a prosperous sheep owner, who came from Vá¹ká¹£agrÄma in the ÄbhÄ«ra region.24 âOnce, because a shepherd had caught a fever, our father sent us to the forest to let the sheep graze (16.29). There, we saw a wood apple tree full of big fruits. When I saw that, my mind became obsessed with eating those fruits (16.30â31). But I was too hungry to climb the tree. So, I cut off my head and threw it to the top of the tree (16.32â35). After I had filled my belly with the fruits, my head came back down and reattached to my body. (16.36). I went back to the sheep and found my brother asleep (16.37). I asked him: âWhere have all the sheep gone?â âThey must have gone somewhere while I was sleepingâ, he said. âOur father will be angry when we return home, so we should go to another region, where they will not recognize usâ (16.40). Thus, we changed into the garb of ÅvetÄmbaras, because our father was a follower of that tradition (16.41â42). Then while wandering around we arrived here (16.43).â
The Brahmins did not believe him, and again Manovega said there were similar stories in their texts (16.44â47).
6.2 The Story of Åivaâs Boon to RÄvaá¹a
âRÄvaá¹a with his ten faces worshipped Åiva by cutting off nine of his heads and asked for a boon (16.47â49). He made a Ravanahatha lute out of his own arm and started singing a song that enchanted the gods and the Gandharvas.25 This convinced Åiva to give RÄvaá¹a the boon he desired. As such, the blood of all the heads that were cut off poured onto the earth. Is this not told in your PurÄá¹as (16.53)?â
The Brahmins agreed. âIf this story is true, then why would my story not be true?â Manovega argued (16.56). âJust like when RÄvaá¹aâs heads were cut off and reconnected again by Åiva, my head was also cut off and reconnected. And if Åiva can reconnect RÄvaá¹aâs heads, why can he not reconnect his own penis that was cut off by ascetics?â
6.3 The Story of Dadhimukha
âThere was a Brahmin woman ÅrÄ«kaá¹á¹hÄ who had a son called Dadhimukha, who was born with only a head. Once he met muni Agastya and invited him to his home (16.60â61). But Agastya asked him where he should come as Dadhimukha did not have a house of himself. Dadhimukha did not understand as he lived in the house of his father. The muni explained to him that to be a âhouseholderâ he should have a house and a wife of himself (16.64). Thus, Dadhimukha went to his parents and asked to arrange a marriage (16.65â66). This his parents did; they got him a poor girl in exchange for a lot of money (16.67). After the marriage, for which the family was bereft of money, Dadhimukha wanted to go elsewhere. Therefore, his wife put him in a basket and off they went (16.70). Travelling from place to place the people admired how well the woman took care of her husband and revered her (16.71â72). When they arrived at the city of Ujjain, they went to a gambling house. She left Dadhimukha there and went into the city to beg for money. There, two gamblers started fighting, and one cut off the head of the other (16.73â74). Because during the fight the basket of Dadhimukha was also cut through, his head became attached to the headless body of the gambler (16.75â76). Are these not the words of VÄlmÄ«ki?â The Brahmins told Manovega this was true.
6.4 Stories of âHalf Godsâ
âWhen RÄvaá¹a killed Aá¹ gada with his sword, HanumÄn put his body back together (16.80). DÄnavendra worshipped the gods in order to receive a boon to get a son. Half of the boon he gave to one wife and half to another wife. In this way, they each gave birth to half a son. Then JarÄ came to them and she united (sandhita) the halves. Thus, JarÄsandha was born (16.81â84). If both JarÄsandha and Aá¹ gada were put together, then why could my head not be joined to my body (16.86)? If the god Skanda, who consisted of six parts, could become one, then why could my two parts not become one (16.87)?â
The Brahmins agreed that all this was true but questioned how he could have filled his belly (16.90).
âWhen Brahmins eat, fathers and grandfathers are pleased, why could my body not enjoy when my head eats (16.91)?26
VyÄsa and others have taught us things that are lies, such as the idea that RÄvaá¹a would have buried VÄlin under Mount KailÄÅa and would have defeated Indra (16.100â102). How could the great god Viá¹£á¹u have become a charioteer to Arjuna? What is the use of popular discourse that spreads blindness?â.
After telling all these stories and comparing them to the Brahminsâ PurÄá¹as, the two vidyÄdharas left the silenced and defeated Brahmins and sat down under a tree. Pavanavega then asked his friend to teach him the difference between the theories of the Jain and the Brahmins (17.1â3).
6.5 Critique of the Vaidikas27
âThe Veda is said to be uncreated, but since it is caused by the organs of speech, this is inconsistent (17.7â12). Likewise, there must be an omniscient being, because the meaning of something (i.e. of the Veda) cannot be explained by itself (17.16â17). The Vedic priests perform violence in their sacrifices, how could they go to heaven (17.19â20)? According to the Veda oneâs religious duty is determined merely because of birth (jÄti). The distinction should only be made by differentiating good conduct. There is no real ground to establish the Brahmin class, differentiated from and seen as purer than the Ká¹£atriya class (17.23â27). One goes to heaven or hell on the basis of his conduct (17.31â32).
A stupid MÄ«mÄá¹saka would believe that just by bathing without any moral conduct he is purified. (17.33â39). There are some thinkers [CÄrvÄkas] who do not distinguish the body from consciousness, [believing that everything is matter (i.e. body)]. However, this is refuted on the base of perception and inference (17.43â45). If, as those thinkers believe, âessencesâ (tattvas), âbondageâ (bandha), and âliberationâ (moká¹£a) do not exist, then why would there be âtransmigrationâ (saá¹sÄra) (17.47â48). It is also not possible that there is only body, because the body is filthy and not fit to hold the pure soul (17.49â50).
Further, those [Yogikas] who think concentration lies in controlling breath are stupid (17.56).
What is true is that the soul abides in the body, and that besides the three jewels nothing can destroy the connection between the soul and karma (17.57â59). Only true dÄ«ká¹£Ä, following lay vows, and adhering to the three jewels can help against sins (17.60â69).â
6.6 Critique of Buddhism
âThe Buddha who was born by rupturing the body of his mother, who said there is no harm in eating meat and who has put his body in the mouth of a tigress; how could he be compassionate and self-controlled (17.70â72)? If there was complete emptiness, as the Buddha says, then how could he exist, or how could there be bondage and liberation (17.74)? If the soul does not exist, then every action would be meaningless (17.75). If everything is only momentary, then this opposes the fact that in existence there is always a giver and that which is given, a destroyer and that which is destroyed (17.76). The Buddha cannot be omniscient (17.77).â
6.7 Critique of ĪÅvaravÄda
âBrahmÄ lives in VÄrÄá¹asi and is the son of PrajÄpati, Viá¹£á¹u of Vasudeva and Åiva of the yogin SÄtyaki (17.78). How could they be the cause of the creation, the maintaining and the destruction of the world? How could they have one nature as the trimÅ«rti (17.79â80)? These gods are all subdued by lust. Neither these gods, nor ascetics are without sin (17.79â88). The only ones who are not struck by these arrows of love are those who overcome their senses and have a truthful character. These learned men know the path to emancipation and understand the theory, only they can reach liberation (17.93â100).â
6.8 The Origin of Heretic Views
Then Pavanavega asked his friend to explain how the philosophies of others came into being and became opposed to each other. So Manovega explained: (18.1â3)
âIn Bharata, there is the upward and downward cycle of time that constantly moves. They are both divided into six periods (kÄla): sukhamÄsukhamÄ, etc.28 Of the downward cycle (avasarpiá¹Ä«), the first period lasts four crores-of-crores of oceanlike time units (sÄgaropamÄ), the second three crores-of-crores and the third two crores-of-crores (18.4â8). In these three periods the height of the body is measured sequentially by three-two-one krosas,29 and eating food by three-two-one days (18.9), food is measured with reference to the jujube (badara), gooseberry (amalaka), and bastard myrobalan fruit (aká¹£aka) (18.10).30 In those periods, there is no scarcity and abundance, no restraint or vows. People can enjoy everything and are born as twins of a boy and a girl.31 There are ten types of enjoyments produced by the ten types of wishing trees (18.10â16).
At the end of the third period, there were fourteen Patriarchs (kulakaras). á¹á¹£abha [son of the last kulakara], ruler of AyodhyÄ, married the princesses of Kaccha, NandÄ, and SunandÄ. They gave him a hundred sons (18.17â25). When the wishing trees (kalpavá¹ká¹£a) perished, á¹á¹£abha taught the people six professions. When á¹á¹£abha saw Niraá¹jasÄ, an apsaras sent by Indra, he realized that in samsara everything is evanescent. Love, youth, material, wealth, sons, etc., all perishes; only the three jewels are true (18.28â36). And thus, he decided to renounce the world (18.37). When he had reached liberation, he went to the Åaá¹akapark and sat under a banyan tree (18.40). He pulled out five fists of hair as a sign of his renunciation (18.41). He convinced four thousand kings to become ascetics, but after six months they lost track of the right path. They chose to wear their own dress instead of remaining naked and started eating forbidden foods or went back to their houses (18.42â54). The kings of Kaccha and MahÄkaccha thus took the dress of ascetics. And MarÄ«ci formed the SÄá¹khya philosophy for his student Kapila (18.56). 363 other heretic theories were formed by these kings. As such, the CÄrvÄka doctrine was created by Åukra and Bá¹haspati (18.58â59). Perceiving all this, the Jina started to form a path to help the people (18.62). King ÅreyÄá¹sa had a beautiful dream and went to give food to the Jina (18.63). Because of Bharata some disciples became Brahmins (18.64). The tÄ«rthankara (AdinÄtha) created the four legendary dynasties of Iká¹£vÄku, NÄtha, Bhoja, and Ugra (18.65). The student of PÄrÅvanÄtha, Mauá¹ galÄyana,32 became angry at MahÄvÄ«ra and created the Buddhist path (18.68). In the fourth time period, the time of strife (kalikÄla), all heretical views will be spread. Then, the Jina will be praised (18.72â73). There are no other jewels for liberation than the four: correct insight (samyaktvaâdarÅana), knowledge (âjñÄna), behaviour (carita), and ascetic practice (tapas) (18.78). My dear friend, understand all these pure teachings of the Jina; that is the only path to liberation (18.80â85).â
6.9 Teaching the Jain Vows
After listening to this lesson, Pavanavega spoke to his friend: âI had disregarded the Jain teachings and followed false beliefs, because of my slow-wittedness. And I did not want to listen to your intelligent words. But you, my friend, are my only brother and guru. You have made me understand and guided me away from darkness towards the path of the Jina. Because of you, I can now turn to the threefold path and take up the vows of Jainism (18.86â96).â33 Then the two went into their vimÄna and departed for Ujjain (18.99).
Arriving in the park of Ujjain, they met Jinamati, who said: âSo this is your friend Pavanavegaâ (19.1). Manovega confirmed and told the wise man that by understanding different theories in PÄá¹aliputra, he has entered onto the path of liberation. Then the wise man said: âYour grace, now accept the lay vows (ÅrÄvaka-vrata) as witnessed by god (deva), the Self (Ätma), and a teacher (guru) (19.6). Take this vow of truthfulness (samyaktva) and understand the âessencesâ (tattvas) of the soul (jÄ«va) and non-soul (ajÄ«va), etc., as told by the Jina.34 There are five small vows (aá¹uvratas), three subsidiary vows (guá¹avratas), and four vows of instruction (Åiká¹£Ävratas) (19.7â12).35 The five aá¹uvratas are non-violence (ahiá¹sÄ), truth (satyam), not-stealing (asteyam), chastity (brahmacÄryam), and non-attachment (asaá¹ gatÄ). They can be known by perception, action and being (19.13). Embodied beings are divided into two: trasa and sthÄvara. There are four types of trasas: those who have two, three, four or five sense organs (19.17â18).36 Violence (hiá¹sÄ) is of two types: Ärambha and anÄrambha (19.19).37 When one eats meat, which is a form of violence, one will go to hell (19.23â30). Alcohol is also to be left as it destroys salvific duty (dharma), fulfilment of desire (kÄma), and acquirement of wealth (artha) (19.31â40).38 Honey and the five fruits of the fig (uá¸umbara) are also restricted, just like bulbous roots, roots, fruits, and flowers (19.41â45). One should avoid passions like love, anger, hate, jealousy, and blindness. One should not take the belongings of others (aparigraha) (19.46â55). One should not enjoy the wives of others, because it makes one go to hell (19.56â65). Instead, one should be content with oneâs own wife (19.67â72).39 The three guá¹avratas are the diÅâ, deÅaâ, and anarthadaá¹á¸a-vrata. The first is to restrict oneâs directions, the second to restrict oneâs locations, and the third is to refrain from the five minor types of harmful activity (19.73â82).40 The Åiká¹£Ävratas are of four types: equanimity (sÄmÄyika), fasting (upoá¹£ita), limiting consumption (bhogopabhoga), and sharing food with a guest (19.83â91). One should give (dÄna) to a muni in nine ways and with seven guá¹as (19.93).41 When a wise person approaches death, he resorts to sallekhanÄ (ritual fasting to death) (19.94). One who is without passion (kaá¹£Äya), false belief (mithyÄtva), and desire for worldly gain (nidÄna) can become a renouncer (saá¹nyÄsin), and by doing this ÅrÄvaka-dharma he can become liberated (19.95â97).â Then Jinamati went on telling about the rules of a lay person (20.1).
âOne should not eat at night, as this causes extreme suffering (20.2â10). One who eats outside of the two allowed moments of the day, should do a twofold fast for one month (20.12). One should follow the rules of fasting (20.13â19). DÄna should be understood as fourfold: giving food, giving medicine, giving books (ÅÄstra), and giving shelter (20.24â39). Then there are seven types of low conduct (nÄ«cÄcÄra): drinking alcohol, eating meat, gambling, stealing, multiplying sins, intercourse with the wife of another, and intercourse with a prostitute. (20.41â51) One who follows all these lay rules of conduct and follows aparigraha, he will be free of karma (20.52â64). Of all the vows, the most important aspect is truthfulness (samyaktva), which cuts through transmigration (saá¹sÄra) (20.65â66). Faith (darÅana), conduct (caritra), and knowledge (jñÄna) are the three ways to prevent rebirth. He who has samyaktva in these three ways is most excellent (20.67â80).â
Having heard all these teachings by Jinamata, Pavanavega was very satisfied. Together with his friend Manovega, he went back to their mountain. There, from then on, the two vidyÄdharas were completely engaged with following the fourfold ÅrÄvaka-dharma (20.81â89).
The narrative imagination of PÄá¹alÄ«putra had a history in Jain literature (see, e.g. Fynes 1999).
The different manuscripts have mostly MÄlaya, but also MÄlava and Valaya and VÄjava.
A people mostly described as pastoral.
The manuscripts I have collected all render the word vÄrtulÄs (meaning âroundâ, âballâ, or âpeaâ). The edition by ÅÄstri (1978) gives a variant muá¹£á¹ayas (meaning âfistâ, or âpunchâ). This variant accords with Mironowâs interpretation as âOhrfeigenâ (1903, 15).
Each fool is presented by a separate substory and their title represents a decisive plot element.
In Amitagatiâs text also the variant Bahudhanika for the name Bahudhanyaka occurs.
This is followed by a section extending on the nature of women (see Chapter Two).
This ritual appears to be a Årauta sacrifice as it is mentioned alongside other well-known Årauta sacrifices, such as the aÅvamedha and rÄjasÅ«ya, in the MahÄbhÄrata (3.31.16). This is corroborated by epigraphical records as described in Sircar (1971, 177â178, fn. 8). See also the discussion on Indology List, 5th April 2012.
In the Jain context brahmacarya is one of the successive stages in the idealized course of a laymanâs life. A BrahmacÄrin is at that stage (see Jaini 1979, 183).
Neem juice is commonly assumed to boost digestion, whereas milk and sugar aggravates pitta (âthe bilious humorâ).
These are DÄÅarathi, ParaÅurÄma and BalarÄma.
In fact, it is unclear whether these words are uttered by Manovega or by the Brahmins, since in 10.31 they already admit that they have been awakened by Manovega and repeat that they are convinced in 10.46. In any case, the continued rhetorical questions give the impression of a sermon in which the speaker (e.g. a monk) turns his critique directly to his audience, instead of to the fictitious characters of the narrative.
Sircar (1971, 113) identifies them as a hill tribe usually connected with the Vindhyan range. Pargiter notices three different branches of this tribe: a western branch, a southern branch, and one stretching into the Central-Asian Himalayas (1904, 316; 335; 338).
The pala is a money standard (equal to 320 ratis) for a silver coinage (rūpya-pala) (Sircar 1995, 67). It is unclear whether it was still in use at the time of Amitagati.
Amitagati does not mention the name of TilottamÄ at that point. The audience is expected to know the story.
This hymn from the á¹gveda (10.190) is used to ritually remove sins (Mani 1975, 10).
I interpret this as referring to how you make fire.
The eight qualities of aá¹iman etc. seem to refer to the eight siddhis (powers) usually associated with Åiva. These are aá¹iman (âto become infinitely smallâ), laghiman (âto become infinitely lightâ), mahiman (âto become largeâ), Ä«Åitva (âthe power to ruleâ), vaÅitvÄ (âthe power to captureâ), garimÄ (âto become infinitely heavyâ), prÄkÄmya (âunimpeded fulfilmentâ), and prÄptÄ« (âunlimited reachâ) (Powers 1984, 326).
Manovega takes the form of several types of ascetics. Because the terms are not entirely clear in how to distinguish these types, I have given the Sanskrit term in brackets (See also De Jonckheere 2019b).
This sentence, and other similar sentences (e.g. 13.51), is characteristic of Amitagatiâs text.
This refers to the cakravyÅ«ha episode of the MahÄbhÄrata (Droá¹a Parva). Droá¹a forms a particular army formation on the ground (cakravyÅ«ha) for the Kaurava army in which Abhimanyu gets trapped and is killed.
This distance is different in Amitagatiâs version from Hariá¹£eá¹aâs version.
The use of the word ÅÅ«nyatÄ is probably a pun to say both âI only see empty (senseless) thoughtsâ, and to refer to the doctrine that everything is empty in Buddhism.
See note 3.
This episode refers to the origin of the musical instrument called Ravanahatha.
In the text by ManohardÄs at this point in the plot, there is a completely new story about the origin of the ÅrÄddha ritual. It seems to be in itself a frame story that includes a parable of a goose and a crow between whom some dispute arises that has to be solved by the city council (pañcÄyat). I have not been able to find this story in any other sources, but the use of animal characters suggests it had a precedent in folk culture. This story is analyzed in De Jonckheere 2025.
This part of the plot is only included in Amitagatiâs version (in Chapter 17) and discussed in detail in Chapter Two of this book. ManohardÄs has minor references to what is told here but does not include it in full (see Chapter Three).
See Jaini (1979, 31).
Krosa or kroÅa is a measure of distance.
To each of the three periods of the downward cycle belongs a specific size of meal. These are measured by the three small types of fruit (See also Stevensonâs Notes on Modern Jainism (1910, 80), which was compiled with the help of Gujarati Jains and Gujarati sources).
See also Stevenson (1910, 79â80).
The edition reads Mauá¹ galÄyana whereas the standard name of this disciple is MaudgalyÄyana.
The path of Jainism is made up of the three jewels (ratnatraya): âright beliefâ (samyak-dá¹á¹£á¹i), âright knowledgeâ (samyak-jñÄna), and âright conductâ (samyak-cÄritra). The omission of tapas, which was mentioned before, signals that Pavanavega will commit to the lay path.
The TattvÄrthasÅ«tra, a text central to both Digambara and Åvetambara Jainism, explains that there are seven tattvas that establish karmic theory and thus determine the cycle of transmigration as well as the path to liberation (UmÄsvÄti 1.4, see Tatia 2006). This list was later expanded to nine tattvas (see Dundas 2006, 96).
Jīva and ajīva are two of them and make up the two types of existents.
The Jain lay vows are divided into these three categories. The aá¹uvratas appear to be equal in all Jain texts, but there are differences with regards to the guá¹avratas and Åiká¹£Ävratas (see Williams 1963).
Living beings are divided into those that move about (trasa) and those that do not move about (sthÄvara). The division into beings according to the number of senses they posses is described by Dundas as an additional hierarchy (2002, 95), yet here seen as a subdivision of the trasas.
Ärambha hiá¹sÄ concerns violence occurring from an âacceptableâ occupation (e.g. a farmer accidently killing insects; see Jaini (1979, 171)). AnÄrambha hiá¹sÄ, it follows, concerns violence not ocurring from an occupation. ÅÄstrÄ« indeed glosses anÄrambha as sÄá¹kalpika, meaning out of will (1978: 315). Olivelle, referring to the Bhagavad GÄ«tÄ, explains Ärambha as involving ritual actions, whereas anÄrambha involves the life of a renunciator, and thus the absence of ritual actions (2011, 133).
Dharma, kÄma and artha are the three goals of life in Indian traditions. Sometimes, moká¹£a (liberation) is added as a fourth goal.
This refers to the vow of chastity (brahma-vrata, the fourth aá¹uvrata). It has a double formulation, existing of (1) avoidance of the wives of others and (2) contentment with oneâs own wife (see Williams 1963: 85).
See Jaini (1979, 179).
The seven virtues are the following: (1) faith, (2) devotion, (3) contentment, (4) zeal, (5) discrimination, (6) disinterestedness, and (7) forbearance (see Williams 1963: 153). The nine ways of dÄna are the following: (1) reception, (2) giving a seat of honor, (3) washing the feet, (4) worship, (5) obeisance, and purity of the donor in his (6) mind, (7) speech, (8) body and (9) food (see Williams 1963, 159â160).