1.1 Motivation for Research
If there is anything that characterizes the world we inhabit, now a quarter of a century into the third millennium, it is perhaps the rapid advancement of science and technology that stands at the forefront. Undoubtedly, scientific breakthroughs and technological inventions have infiltrated our daily lives so thoroughly that it is hard to imagine how people survived without them just a few decades ago. Another trait, intensified by global migration and driven by the increasing accessibility of intercontinental travel, is the pluralistic society in which we all live. These two issues, deeply interconnected, present significant challenges and opportunities for contemporary Christianity, depending on how we choose to address them.
Chinese Christianity is no stranger to these challenges. As a typical atheist raised near Confucius’s hometown in China, I encountered the Christian faith while pursuing a PhD in Physics in the United States. Science and religion represent the two significant obstacles in my conversion experience (see §1.4 for more details). The scientific and theological training, along with Jesus’s frequent admonition to return to “the beginning,”1 propel me to ask the driving question that motivates this project: how did the missionaries to China, who established the earliest Christianity, address these challenges when they encountered an ancient yet vibrant civilization at its peak? More specifically, how did they communicate the unfamiliar concept of the Holy Spirit while interacting with Tang China’s advanced science (and technology) and the dominant Chinese religions at the time?
Driven by this compelling question, this book aims to examine the interconnected relationship between the earliest Chinese theology, science, and Daojiao
By studying the Tang Jingjiao documents, the book aims to reconstruct its theology of creation. Encountering a highly developed civilization with three vibrant worldviews—Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism—Aluoben
As a constructive theologian, I aspire to cultivate a constructive Chinese theology of creation that is informed by the rapid advancements in science and technology within China, in addition to the traditional wisdom of (philosophical and religious) Daoism. The interplay between the Holy Spirit, the human spirit, and the Chinese conceptualization of qi
As an interdisciplinary study, the project integrates theological, historical, philosophical, scientific (and technological), religious, and cognitive linguistic studies while concentrating on Jingjiao’s interaction with Tang’s pluralistic and techno-scientific society. Historically and ecclesiastically, the study will maintain a focus on their cultural and ecclesiastical heritages, particularly the schools of Edessa and Nisibis, where numerous missionaries of the Church of the East received their training.7 Philosophically, qi is regarded as a central pillar in ancient Chinese medicine, whose value has been increasingly acknowledged as complementary to Western medicine. Notably, it has been observed that many Syriac monks were proficient physicians,8 which can be traced to the Church of the East’s interaction with science and technology.9 Finally, from a cognitive-linguistic perspective, the conceptual metaphors used in the Jingjiao documents will be explored alongside an investigation into how these metaphors are applied in Daoist classics and science.
1.2 Argument and Method of the Study
In this book, I argue that by foregrounding the person and work of the Holy Spirit within Jingjiao’s theology of creation against the backdrop of China’s spirit world, the triadic and interdisciplinary interaction among theology, science (and technology), and various religions in the Chinese context plays a crucial role in formulating a Chinese theology of creation that is appropriate for the techno-scientific and pluralistic landscape of the third millennium.
In order to facilitate the substantiation of the book’s thesis, this volume adopts a specific methodology based on the following considerations. First, concerning the relationship between theology and science, Wolfhart Pannenberg’s well-known position is critical mutual dialogue.10 Robert John Russell also supports this position.11 In particular, McGrath delineates critical realism ontologically, epistemologically, and semantically.12 This project posits that the critical realism presented by the aforementioned theologians in general, and McGrath in particular, necessitates enhancement through embodied realism as articulated by cognitive linguistics,13 resulting in a fresh methodology of Embodied Critical Realism (ECR, see §6.4 for more details).
Since the publication of Metaphors We Live By by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson,14 they have provided substantial evidence indicating that a serious consideration of the existence of conceptual metaphor necessitates a profound re-evaluation of numerous foundational assumptions within the Western philosophical tradition regarding meaning, conceptualization, reason, knowledge, truth, and language. They contend that one “cannot give an adequate account of conceptual metaphor and other imaginative structures of understanding without recognizing some form of embodied realism.”15 In practice, facilitated by ECR, conceptual metaphors such as qi for the Holy Spirit will be analyzed using the tools provided in cognitive linguistics (see §6.3 for more details).
Second, this book employs a “triadic” approach—a trialogue16 —centered on the critical mutual dialogue between theology and science, which is interwoven with the efforts of comparative theology through engagement with Chinese religions in general and Daoism in particular. Admittedly, the complexity has increased exponentially in comparison to conversations focused on theology–science or theology–religion. Nonetheless, the mutual illumination also intensifies; first, the theological engagement with religions is enhanced by scientific advancements within the Chinese and Syriac contexts. Second, Chinese religions will effectively inform the theological interaction with science. Third, the influence of religions—both positive and negative—on science can be enriched by Christian theology. This intensified, multi-dimensional mutual enrichment yields a three-fold benefit. First, it facilitates a more comprehensive and dynamic formulation of Jingjiao’s theology of creation. Second, it promotes the construction of a Christian theology of creation that draws upon the wisdom of various religions and cultures, while concurrently being informed by the latest scientific developments. Third, such a trialogue permits what McGrath describes as a “stereoscopic view of reality denied to those who limit themselves to one discipline’s perspective.”17 The “one discipline” referred to by McGrath pertains to either science or theology, and in this project, it also appropriately extends to theology–science, theology–religion, and science–religion dialogue.
Third, the project adopts Kärkkänen’s “coherent, inclusive, dialogical, and hospitable vision.”18 Guided by this vision, “[a] key to doing comparative theology and practicing proper dialogue is to find and carefully read sacred scriptures and other authoritative texts on the chosen topic.”19 Therefore, I have compiled the primary source for this project, namely, the Tang Jingjiao documents, by listing the texts in both Chinese and a new English translation (see Appendix).
1.3 Academic Significance
This book offers a fivefold contribution to scholarship, appealing to a broad academic and ecclesial community. First, the project’s triadic approach—linking science, religion, and theology—positions it at the forefront of international research. Rather than simply fostering a dialogue between science and theology or between religion and theology, this triadic approach introduces additional complexities. However, the benefits are substantial, as the study of science illuminates the theology of religions, and the analysis of religions clarifies research on the dialogue between theology and science. Excluding either science or religion with the false expectation of simplification only undermines the integrity of theological research in the Chinese context, which is intricately intertwined with both religious and scientific characteristics. This unique aspect may make this book appealing to theologians and scholars of religious studies (Daoism in particular) engaged in interdisciplinary studies, such as the theology–science conversation and interfaith dialogue.
Second, the book’s examination of metaphors found in Jingjiao texts, Chinese science and technology, and Daoism makes a significant contribution to the emerging field of Cognitive Science of Religion (CSR).20 It also explores the intersection between Christian biblical and theological studies and cognitive linguistics.21 As a result, scholars in these fields can draw on this book for comparison and insight.
Third, the book contributes to Jingxue
Fourth, the project contributes to the global Christian mission and theology through its original exploration of the earliest Christian encounters with ancient techno-scientific and pluralistic China. Given that global Christianity has shifted its “center of gravity” from the Global North to the Global South,23 Christian missiologists and theologians bear the responsibility to creatively and dynamically engage with scientific and technological development as well as religious pluralism. This chapter, particularly its enumeration of Jingjiao’s missional strategy (§4.3), enriches missiological research by providing food for thought for global missiologists and theologians.
Last but not least, the significance of this project also lies in its constructive theology (Chapter 7), which addresses the Chinese context while engaging with its global theological partners. The project aims to develop a Chinese theology of creation, involving dialogue partners that include both ancient and contemporary Chinese and Syriac theologians, as well as Continental and North American theologians. Consequently, Chinese theologians within China and in the global Chinese diaspora may find this book appealing due to its constructive efforts and its engagement with a diverse range of global theological voices.
1.4 Personal Relevance and Significance for North American Christianity
Having been born and raised in mainland China, I immigrated to the United States as a staunch atheist. Further aspects of my upbringing include my hometown’s proximity to the birthplace of Confucius, Qufu
During my pursuit of a PhD in physics, I had my first exposure to the Christian gospel message. As a scientist in training, I recall my initial reaction when I met Christians: “The United States is the most advanced country in science and technology, which is why I’m here. Didn’t I learn in China that the more advanced a country’s science is, the less superstitious its people will be?” Little did I realize how deeply I was influenced by scientism in China, stemming from the May Fourth Movement of 1919.25
Confused and puzzled, I was searching for answers. Then, someone handed me the book Youzi Yin
Since my conversion, I have actively participated in campus ministry across North America. Driven by a passion for church planting and spreading the gospel, it pains me to witness the slow yet steady decline of Christianity. This project focuses on the Spirit’s innovative and persistent efforts to engage with the vibrant world in China. Once properly identified, accurately named, and thoroughly analyzed, the Spirit’s work that contributes to the flourishing of the Christian faith in China has the potential to be shared with the Global North, and North America in particular, thereby revitalizing its Christian faith and expression amidst an increasingly pluralistic and scientifically and technologically competitive global society.31
1.5 Previous Research on the Chinese Theology and Interaction with Science and Religions
English-language works on Chinese theology (see §2.4 for more details) have seen a surge in the past decade, compared to a slow start 40 years ago with Lin Ronghong
Chinese works under the umbrella of Hanyu Shenxue
Elsewhere, I’ve argued that there’s roughly a seventy-year gap between Chinese theology of science and its Western counterpart.44 The Chinese theology of science is underdeveloped for four key reasons. First, Chinese theology is still in its early stages and needs to be formulated to address the contemporary Chinese context, as well as adapt to the diverse and pluralistic “post-world”—postmodern, postfoundationalist, poststructuralist, postcolonial, postmetaphysical, postpropositional, postliberal, postconservative, postsecular, and post-Christian. Second, Chinese theology lacks theologically trained scientists and scientifically knowledgeable theologians. It’s no surprise that many in mainland China’s academic community view religion and science as opposing forces, echoing the May Fourth Movement’s ideology of displacing religion with science. Third, both ecclesial and academic Chinese theology fail to capitalize on the opportunity to participate in interdisciplinary efforts through a theology–science–religion trialogue. A fourth gap is the lack of historical and theological study from an evangelical perspective. This project aims to fill these four gaps.
Research on Jingjiao has been extensive, with scholars from the West (including France, Austria, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy) and the East (including Japan, mainland China, and Taiwan) producing numerous monographs, edited volumes, and articles.45 However, most focus on historical and textual studies. Tang Li’s theological analysis only briefly mentions creation in her discussion of Jingjiao’s doctrine of the Trinity, Christology, and contextualized theology46 (as if certain other theologians’ thoughts on the Trinity and Christology are not contextualized).47 Notably, Johan Ferreira provides an overview of Tang Christianity’s theology,48 but his analysis is based on only a subset of the Tang Jingjiao corpus, omitting four theologically significant texts and mistakenly classifying two documents (Blessedness and Origin, see §2.1.2) as non-Christian. This reconstruction is therefore incomplete, and Ferreira’s discussion of Jingjiao’s pneumatology is also lacking. Furthermore, he relies heavily on an outdated translation by Saeki. Recently, Zhu Donghua has fundamentally contributed to our understanding of Jingjiao’s theology, highlighting its Antiochene roots and connection to the Nicene Creed.49
1.6 Plan of Study
The project proper begins with Chapter 2, which is entitled “Background: Jingjiao, Religion, Science, Chinese Theology, Qi, and Metaphors.” In this chapter, I will provide a brief analysis of Jingjiao in the Tang dynasty, its entire corpus, and the new English translation. It will also explore Chinese religions, science in the Chinese context, Chinese theology, qi in the ancient Chinese worldview up until the Tang Dynasty, and metaphors. Some key terms essential to this project will be defined, including religion, science, Chinese theology, qi, and metaphors. This will not only narrow the scope of this project but also help prevent any confusion or misunderstanding regarding these otherwise extremely complicated concepts. Due to the extensive nature of this chapter, readers may choose to skip it. However, while reading other chapters, they can always return to this chapter for clear definitions of these major terms.
Chapter 3 is titled “Jingjiao’s Qi-tological Theology of Creation.” The main purpose of this chapter is to reconstruct Jingjiao’s theology of creation through a close reading of the primary source. This chapter will trace Jingjiao’s theological roots to the Church of the East, their adapted Nicene Creed (in Syriac), and identify their creative theological insights to contextualize their beliefs within the Chinese context. In particular, the chapter will explore the metaphors that serve as names for God by examining the names of the Father, Son, and Spirit in the Tang Jingjiao corpus. Most importantly, qi (and by logical extension feng
The purpose of Chapter 4 is to investigate Jingjiao’s missional strategy. Entitled “Scientifically and Interreligiously Engaged Missional Strategy of Jingjiao,” the chapter will present in detail Jingjiao’s missional tactics in continuity with the Church of the East and the theological roots of their qi-tological theology of creation.
With the title “JIngjiao–Science–Daoism Trialogue,” Chapter 5 will first justify the project’s choice of Daoism as Jingjiao’s interlocutor. Then, I will explore the triadic relationship in three dimensions: metaphorically, terminologically, and qi-tologically.
Chapter 6, entitled “Metaphors and Embodied Critical Realism for Theology–Science–Religion Trialogue,” aims to utilize the tools of cognitive linguistics to analyze qi as Jingjiao’s core metaphor for the Holy Spirit. Additionally, this chapter will propose embodied critical realism (ECR) as a theological method for the theology–science–religion trialogue.
Chapter 7 is entitled “Toward a Constructive Chinese Theology of Creation.” This chapter will construct a Chinese theology of creation by engaging with science (Quantum Field Theory), spirits, and Chinese religions. Looking forward to the second quarter-century of the third millennium, it will emphasize the crucial role of the Holy Spirit and metaphors such as qi and field.
In the concluding chapter, I will briefly summarize the major milestones of the project and also attempt to project the future directions of Chinese theology and the theology–science–religion trialogue for the third millennium.
For instance, in answering a question about Moses’s permission of divorce, Jesus answered: “It was because you were so hard-hearted that Moses allowed you to divorce your wives, but from the beginning it was not so.” (Matt. 19:8, NRSV, emphasis added). Also see Matt. 19:4; Mark 10:6. Unless otherwise specified, all scripture references are from NRSV.
Nie labels this technique as wennei huzheng
Donghua Zhu, “Chinese Jingjiao and the Antiochene Exegesis,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Bible in China, ed. K. K. Yeo (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 48.
Or Alopen. About Aluoben and his identity, see Hao Fang
Kenneth Scott Latourette used the metaphor almost a century ago when he asserted that “in trying to clothe their faith in dress familiar to the Chinese, [the Jingjiao authors] may have sacrificed in part its distinctiveness and defeated their own aim.” See Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China (New York: Macmillan, 1967 [1929]), 59. However, Johan Ferreira objects to Latourette’s evaluation and remarks, “However, an examination of the Tang texts will show that there is nothing Nestorian or Buddhist in the texts per se. Instead, the theology and devotion of the text correspond almost totally to the Syriac Christianity of the fifth and sixth centuries.” See Johan Ferreira, Early Chinese Christianity: The Tang Christian Monument and Other Documents, Early Christian Studies 17 (Brisbane: St Pauls, 2014), 317.
In this project, I follow the early Syriac Christian tradition in portraying the Holy Spirit as feminine. For a recent monograph, see Julie M. Hopkins, ‘The Wings of the Spirit’: Exploring Feminine Symbolism in Early Pneumatology: A Reassessment of a Key Metaphor in the Spiritual Teachings of the ‘Macarian Homilies’ in the Light of Early Syriac Christian Tradition, ed. Gertraud Ladner, Nicola Slee, and Kristin De Troyer, ESWTR Studies in Religion 1 (Leuven: Peeters, 2020). For earlier articles, see Johannes Van Oort, “The Holy Spirit as Feminine: Early Christian Testimonies and Their Interpretation,” HTS: Theological Studies 72, no. 1 (2016); Fumihiko Takeda, “The Holy Spirit as Feminine in the Early Syriac Christian Tradition,” Theological Studies in Japan 47, no. 1 (2008).
Xinran Zhu
Yuan Chen
Such a connection has been well documented in the church’s Mesopotamian and Iranian setting and has received important recent attention by sinologists working in the Tang context. See R. Todd Godwin, “Da-Qin, Tajiks, and Their Doctors—East Syrian Scientists across the Courts of Early Medieval Persia, China, and Tibet, and the Possibility that ‘Da-Qin’ Christians Were ‘Tajik’ Christians,” in Artifact, Text, Context: Studies on Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia, eds. Li Tang and Dietmar W. Winkler (Zürich: LIT, 2020), 43.
Wolfhart Pannenberg, Systematic Theology, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, 3 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991, 1994, 1998), 2:59–60.
Robert J. Russell, Cosmology: From Alpha to Omega: the Creative Mutual Interaction of Theology and Science (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008), 4–24 (in particular p. 21).
Ontologically, there exists a reality or realities, the existence of which is independent of and external to the inquiring human mind. Epistemologically, this reality or these realities can be known, however approximately. Semantically, this reality may be depicted, described, or in some manner represented, however inadequately or provisionally, so that it is possible to make statements concerning this reality that may be described at least as approximations to the truth. See McGrath, ScT, 3:75–76.
Mark Johnson and George Lakoff, “Why Cognitive Linguistics Requires Embodied Realism?,” Cognitive Linguistics 13, no. 3 (2002), https://doi.org/10.1515/cogl.2002.016.
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).
Johnson and Lakoff, “Why Cognitive Linguistics,” 245. For a careful definition of conceptual metaphor and primary metaphor, see §2.6. For now, suffice it to say here that conceptual metaphor refers to the understanding of one idea in terms of another.
Amos Yong has done pioneering work in this field, which provides inspiration for this book. See, e.g., Yong, CB.
Alister E. McGrath, Science & Religion: A New Introduction, 3rd ed. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2020), 2.
Kärkkäinen, CCTPW, 1:13.
Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Doing the Work of Comparative Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2020), 5.
See, e.g., Justin L. Barrett, ed., The Oxford Handbook of the Cognitive Science of Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022); David Cycleback, Cognitive Science of Religion and Belief Systems (London: Bookboon Learning, 2019).
See, e.g., Jacob Chengwei Feng, “Divine Action in the Flesh: A Cognitive Linguistic Evaluation of Pannenberg’s Theology,” Scottish Journal of Theology 78, no. 2 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1017/S0036930624000656; István Czachesz, Cognitive Science and the New Testament: A New Approach to Early Christian Research (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017); Justin L. Barrett, Cognitive Science, Religion, and Theology: From Human Minds to Divine Minds, Templeton Science and Religion Series (West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton, 2011).
A few foundational commentaries include, in chronological order, Chengjun Feng, Jingjiao bei kao
Justo L. González, Mañana: Christian Theology from a Hispanic Perspective (Nashville: Abingdon, 1990), 49.
Jianhui Li and Zheng Fu, “The Craziness for Extra-sensory Perception: Qigong Fever and the Science-pseudoscience Debate in China,” Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science 50, no. 2 (2015).
Ko-wu Huang, “The Origin and Evolution of the Concept of Mixin (Superstition): A Review of May Fourth Scientific Views,” Chinese Studies in History 49, no. 2 (2016), https://doi.org/10.1080/00094633.2015.1132922.
Cheng Li
The following evaluation is from Jacob Chengwei Feng, “Addressing the Needham Question from a Theological Perspective: Toward a Chinese Theology of Holistic Wisdom,” Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science 57, no. 2 (2022), https://doi.org/10.1111/zygo.12787.
Li argues that the monotheistic worldview is the basis of modern science. See chapter 5 in Li, Youzi [Song]. Also see Avihu Zakai, “The Rise of Modern Science and the Decline of Theology as the Queen of Sciences in the Early Modern Era,” Reformation & Renaissance Review 9, no. 1 (2007): 125–51, https://doi.org/10.1558/rrr.v9i2.125.
Henry M. Morris, Scientific Creationism (San Diego, CA: Creation-Life Publishers, 1974).
Kärkkäinen, CCTPW, 3:26.
According to ASPI’s Critical Technology Tracker released in February 2023, compared to China, Western democracies are losing the global technological competition, including the race for scientific and research breakthroughs, and the ability to retain global talent—crucial ingredients that underpin the development and control of the world’s most important technologies, including those that do not yet exist. See Jamie Gaida et al., “ASPI’s Critical Technology Tracker: The Global Race for Future Power,” ASPI (Australian Strategic Policy Institute), updated February, 2023, accessed June 13, 2025, https://www.aspi.org.au/report/critical-technology-tracker/.
Wing-hung Lam, Chinese Theology in Construction (Pasadena, CA: W. Carey Library, 1983).
Alexander Chow, Theosis, Sino-Christian Theology and the Second Chinese Enlightenment: Heaven and Humanity in Unity, Christianities of the World (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2013).
Chloë Starr, Chinese Theology: Text and Context (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2016).
Khiok-Khng Yeo, Musing with Confucius and Paul: Towards a Chinese Christian Theology (Cambridge: James Clarke, 2008); Baoluo Huang, Confronting Confucian Understandings of the Christian Doctrine of Salvation: A Systematic Theological Analysis of the Basic Problems in the Confucian-Christian Dialogue (Leiden: Brill, 2009).
Andrew Ter Ern Loke, God and Ultimate Origins, Palgrave Frontiers in Philosophy of Religion (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2019); Andrew Ter Ern Loke, Evil, Sin, and Christian Theism, Routledge new critical thinking in religion, theology and biblical studies (New York: Routledge, 2022); Andrew Ter Ern Loke, The Teleological and Kalam Cosmological Arguments Revisited, Routledge Frontiers in Philosophy of Religion (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2022).
Xiaoli Yang, A Dialogue between Haizi’s Poetry and the Gospel of Luke: Chinese Homecoming and the Relationship with Jesus Christ (Boston: Brill, 2018).
Liu’s earliest advocation on Sino-Christian theology can be traced to Xiaofeng Liu, “Xiandai yujing zhong de hanyu jidu shenxue”
He Guanghu’s earliest writing on Sino-Christian theology can be traced to Guanghu He, “‘Bentu shenxue’ guankui”
See, e.g., Xinan Yang, Hanyu shenxue chuyi
Jason Lam observes that most participants in the Sino-Christian theology movement are not affiliated with the church. For Lam, this raises the question whether what scholarship arises is really a kind of theology or merely writings on public and/or political issues with reference to Christian themes. Lam argues that the Sino-Christian theology adopts a kind of inter-disciplinary approach that engages in the public realm. However, tension is strong in terms of finding its own identity without losing itself in current public issues and academic trends. See Jason Lam, “Is Sino-Christian Theology Truly ‘Theology’? Problematizing Sino-Christian Theology as a Public Theology,” International Journal of Public Theology 14, no. 1 (2020); Pan-chiu Lai and Jason Lam, eds., Sino-Christian Theology: A Theological Qua Cultural Movement in Contemporary China (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2010).
See, for example, Guanghu He
See, for example, Pisheng Jiang, “Kexue yu zongjiao duihua de zhanxin xianxiang”
This paragraph is adapted from Feng, “Addressing the Needham Question,” 299–300.
Zhijun Nie, Tangdai Jingjiao wenxian yanjiu
Li Tang, A Study of the History of Nestorian Christianity in China and Its Literature in Chinese: Together with a New English Translation of the Dunhuang Nestorian Documents, 2nd revised ed., European University Studies Series 27: Asian and African Studies 87 (Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2004), 134–44.
In contemporary academia, it is an increasing consensus that theology is by nature contextual, whether theologians or theological movements acknowledge it or not. For example, in his five-volume A Constructive Christian Theology for the Pluralistic World, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen specifically argues that it is not the case that theology done by predominantly white male theologians would be “neutral” while, say, trinitarian theology of the Tanzanian Roman Catholic Charles Nyamiti, who takes the framework African ancestral traditions, would be “contextual.” See Kärkkäinen, CCTPW, 1:19.
For his reconstruction of Jingjiao theology, Johan Ferreira uses only the two documents that were discovered in 1908 by Paul Pelliot at Dunhuang, namely, Praise and Honored. He covers the doctrine of God, soteriology, Christology, ecclesiology, eschatology, and missiology. See Ferreira, Early Chinese Christianity, 316–54, and in particular p. 16.
Donghua Zhu, “Sanchong jingyi tanwei”