The research outlined in this study provides insights into the liturgical significance of the images in programmes in Eastern sanctuaries, specifically those depicting a Theophany or Theophany–Deesis in their apses. Through an examination of several examples, the findings reveal the close connection between these programmes and the eucharistic liturgy, highlighting their central role in Eastern Christian tradition. In this context the visual imagery itself assumes a crucial role in shaping the liturgical experience for both the clergy and the faithful, while conveying diverse messages related to spirituality, religious and social mentality, theology and devotion, among others.
The apsidal Theophany, whether depicted with or without the intercessors, ensures the ascent of the clergy and the faithful towards higher and invisible realities and reveals the divine by materialising the presence of Christ, angels and saints in the church at the time of eucharistic consecration. The preface of the Eastern anaphora and the Western canon clearly evokes this presence, affirmed by the patristic tradition. The Fathers asserted that, at this decisive moment of the eucharistic celebration, the heavenly liturgy unites with the earthly liturgy, so as to form one. Christ, being at the same time the priest and the victim of the sacrifice, intervenes invisibly with his celestial cortege to present himself as an offering of the Church. The earthly celebrant replaces him, while the faithful actively join the angels in the acclamation of the thrice holy. This reading places the apsidal Theophany and the intercession of Mary and John the Baptist within the present temporality of the daily practice of the Divine Liturgy. The presence of Mary and John as privileged intercessors is undoubtedly related to their joint mention during the eucharistic celebration, especially through the prayer of intercession during the anaphora.
Several clues firmly support this liturgical reading, including the illustrations in liturgical scrolls, which provide irrefutable evidence of the correspondence between liturgy and iconography. Expanding on the texts of the Holy Liturgy, these illustrations attest that the seraphim and cherubim are the primary cantors of the ecclesiastical Trisagion, praising the divine majesty, as exemplified by the scrolls of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem (Hagios Stavros 109) and Mount Athos (Lavra no. 2). Additionally, these miniatures present the image of the Virgin and the Baptist as favoured representations of the theme of intercession during the eucharistic liturgy and illustrate the prayer of intercession during the anaphora through a type of Theophany–Deesis.
The apsidal image of the Theophany also offers several relevant iconographic and epigraphic motifs in this regard. The nature and physiognomy of the angels singing the Trisagion generally correspond to the liturgical texts, particularly the anaphoric preface. This is evident in such examples as Mar Tadros in Behdidat, Mar Mitr of Kusba and Saydet el-Kharayeb in Kfar Helda. The angelic beings swinging censers, as observed in Mar Semaan in Saqiet el-Kheit and Sant Pau i Sant Pere in Esterri de Cardós, as well as those who administer communion in the same manner as the earthly celebrant, as witnessed at church no. 1 of Güllüdere in Cappadocia and Santa Maria d’Àneu in Catalonia, imbue the apsidal image with eucharistic symbolism. Such liturgical adjectives as ‘six-winged’ and ‘many-eyed’, accompanying the seraphim and cherubim respectively, such as in Saydet el-Kharayeb in Kfar Helda, indicate that these angelic creatures celebrate the liturgy of the Church by intoning the triple hagios. Similarly, the present participles ‘singing’, ‘clamouring’, ‘shouting’ and ‘saying’, which introduce the Trisagion of the anaphora, affirm, by accompanying the four living creatures, that the latter are considered as the cantors of the liturgy, as evidenced in numerous examples from Cappadocia and elsewhere.
The presence of the sun and the moon, such as in Saydet Naya in Kfar Shleiman and the church of St Dodo monastery in the Desert of David Gareja, testify in their turn to the current temporality of the Theophany: these celestial bodies, which constitute the clock of time, disappear definitively at the last end. This is why they are never found in an eschatological Deesis of the Last Judgement, where they appear only in the sky rolled up by an angel, indicating the end of time by their disappearance. However, biblical, hymnographic and liturgical passages confer to the celestial bodies the glorification and praise of God. It is in this perspective that they are invoked at the beginning of the anaphora and participate in the chanting of the Trisagion in the Anaphora of St James. This likely explains why they are present and systematically personified in Theophany scenes, such as the case in the chapel of the Four Living Creatures in the monastery of St Anthony of the Red Sea, where they are explicitly associated with the liturgical Trisagion.
The inclusion within the apsidal Theophany of prophets receiving burning embers, a prefiguration of the body of Christ in the Old Testament, as seen in the church of St John in Güllüdere no. 4, of priests, as in the church of Yüksekli (north-west of Gülşehir), and even of local individuals, as observed in Karanlık Kilise (Göreme), contributes to setting aside the eschatological meaning of the scene in favour of the present time, just like the personification of the sun and the moon. These characters are absent in a Deesis of Universal Judgement. Additionally, substituting the two canonical mediators of the Deesis, the Virgin and the Baptist, with other intercessors is also inconceivable in a Deesis of the Last Judgement. It is noteworthy that the Christ depicted in the apsidal Theophany almost never performs the characteristic gesture of Judgement by raising his right hand to welcome the elect and lowering his left in a gesture of condemnation of the reprobate, as evidenced in the Lebanese corpus. Instead, he generally makes the gesture of speech with his right hand and carries the book in his left. Furthermore, the Virgin Paraklesis continues to connect the Theophany to the present time by displaying liturgical or private petitions, as in the case of the monastery of the Virgin of Treskavec.
In addition to iconographic and epigraphic evidence, syntactic arguments are also drawn from the iconographic setting in which theophanies are situated. Some apsidal Theophany–Deesis compositions, such as in Güllüdere church no. 4 and most likely in Saydet el-Rih in Enfeh, face a Deesis of the Last Judgement, highlighting the difference in temporality between the two compositions. The former refers to the present time and, if linked to judgement, it is the Immediate Judgement that follows directly after death, whereas the latter is part of the end of time. The presence near the apsidal Theophany of Abraham’s bosom or the earthly paradise, which corresponds to the Immediate Judgement, strengthens this interpretation, as seen in the programme of St Mary of the Resurrection in Abu Ghosh, Palestine. Themes of eucharistic value also reinforce the present temporality of the sanctuary’s Theophany and its relationship to the Divine Liturgy, through their sacrificial dimension. These themes include the sacrifices of the Old Law, the Communion of the Apostles, the Officiating Bishops, the Crucifixion, the Galaktotrophousa, the deacon–angels waving rhipidia and the deacons carrying a censer or a pyxis, among others.
The analysis of iconographic programmes in present-day Lebanon reveals a remarkable recurrence of eucharistic themes within the liturgical space. However, as one moves away from the Holy of Holies, the iconography increasingly diverges from the functional perspective of the sanctuary. This is evident in the images found in the naves of Behdidat, Kaftun, Enfeh and Kfar Shleiman of holy soldiers, known for their thaumaturgical and apotropaic qualities, as well as their role as defenders of the Church and the faithful. Additionally, many apsidal walls in Lebanon, like their Byzantine and Eastern counterparts, depict the image of the earthly Church, represented mainly by apostles, bishops and deacons, along with prophets, monks or saints. These figures appear gathered behind the altar, celebrating the liturgy of worship in harmony with the heavenly Church, often represented by the apsidal Theophany.
It is worth noting that the liturgical interpretation of the Theophany and Theophany–Deesis is not exclusive, but rather serves as a foundational ground for other layers of meaning, such as apotropaic, devotional, conventional and ecclesiastical. This is particularly evident when the Virgin’s supplications are addressed on behalf of specific secular individuals, when laypeople of the local community are included in the Theophany or when devotional inscriptions are present. Furthermore, the present temporality of the Theophany and the intercession does not necessarily imply a liturgical reading. In fact, the image can extend far beyond the liturgical context, as seen in private icons or the garments of laypeople, such as the soldier’s helmet found in the Kremlin Armoury in Moscow. These objects primarily serve a devotional or apotropaic function and have no direct or indirect connection to the liturgy.
In addition to the Theophany and Theophany–Deesis, the liturgical perspective has been used in this study to investigate other themes commonly encountered in the liturgical space of Lebanese churches, such as the Annunciation, Nativity, Crucifixion and the Galaktotrophousa. This interpretation has the potential to be applied to other iconographic programmes and can encompass other themes within the liturgical space, such as the Adoration of the Magi and the Presentation in the Temple.
The liturgical function of the paintings and their placement may provide insights into the architectural design. For instance, some churches have dual apses and altars, which have generated various interpretations among researchers. An analysis of the paintings in the chapel annexed to the church of Mar Girgis in Rashkida suggests that the northern altar, surmounted by an apsidal image of the Virgin and Child, was used as a prothesis for preparing the bread and wine before being moved to the main altar in the south, dominated by an image of a Theophany–Deesis. It is on this latter altar that the eucharistic sacrifice took place. In the Byzantine and Eastern world, it was common to decorate the prothesis altar with the image of the Virgin and Child. The meaning of another architectural detail was also highlighted: the small openings in the eastern walls of Lebanese churches, frequently referred to as sources of ventilation or lighting. However, according to the Church Fathers, these openings with the light shining through them were intended to symbolise divine light as an emblem of God as the ‘Father of lights’.
The examination of the iconographic programmes of the medieval churches of present-day Lebanon allowed not only for the evaluation of the liturgical significance of certain images, but also for the shared cultural experiences among diverse linguistic and religious groups coexisting in the region. For instance, Mar Tadros of Behdidat features similar aniconic designs that are commonly found in Islamic art, such as architectural, geometric and interlace motifs. This underscores the lively artistic and cultural exchanges between Muslim and Christian cultures in the region. The assimilation of Muslim artistic traits into medieval ecclesiastical paintings in Lebanon extended beyond the mere use of aniconic motifs, such as the Seljuk chain-pattern arches and cornices. This motif, characterised by a chain of hexagons resembling precious stones in red, white and blue, is also found in Syria, Cyprus, Armenia and southern Italy and bears a resemblance to the intricate geometric patterns found in luxurious Islamic metalwork from the Mamluk period. Moreover, certain figures are portrayed wearing embroidered fabrics or donning well-known Islamic attire. For example, in Behdidat the youth from Mytilene, saved by the holy horseman George, is shown wearing a sirwal and a mandil. Furthermore, images of holy riders are also prevalent in Islamic and Jewish traditions. In fact, artists, regardless of their religious beliefs, could be commissioned by a diverse clientele, practising their art in Jewish, Christian and Muslim contexts, showcasing their ability to cater to various religious preferences and to blend elements from different traditions harmoniously.
The integration of Western elements into Lebanese ecclesiastical paintings is also noteworthy, as it reflects the complex interplay between Eastern and Western cultures. For example, European fashion can be seen in the attire of certain lay figures, such as the bliaut of the female supplicant of Saydet el-Rih in Enfeh, the white coiffe of the male supplicant of Mar Tadros in Behdidat and the parti-coloured robe of the child supplicant depicted in the same church. However, it should be noted that these features alone cannot be used to determine the depicted patrons’ local or Latin origin, as fashion was widely exchanged between different regions. By contrast, heraldic and symbolic motifs may offer more explicit evidence of Latin involvement in the decoration of these churches. In Behdidat, for instance, the presence of an eagle with outstretched wings, Latin crosses and stylised fleurs-de-lis may suggest a direct or indirect connection to Latin patronage or authority. Both Latins and their local counterparts contributed to the construction, decoration and renovation of local churches, driven by personal, religious, social or political motivations. Through their patronage, they gained the privilege of publicly displaying their image, which emphasised their desire for physical interaction with the divine and served as an efficient means of propaganda to convey their spiritual and temporal ambitions. Although their identity and contributions may not be explicitly documented in writing or inscriptions, their portrayal provides evidence of the diverse ways in which medieval individuals, both male and female, contributed to religious institutions and held a high status within the community. Whilst these characters allude to specific individuals, it seems that there was no attempt to reproduce their physical appearances faithfully. Instead, their bodily depictions were designed to convey their social status, gender and age, highlighting their devout and humble attitude of prayer as a model of behaviour worthy of emulation.
The depiction of an archer in Kfar Shleiman raises interesting evidence about artistic transfer. The archer is shown wearing a hunter’s short tunic and wielding the curved bow commonly used in medieval Europe. His distinct features, such as red cheeks and thick hair behind the neck, indicate furthermore that the drawing style is heavily marked by Latin art. This suggests that the painter may have been a Latin artist collaborating with a local painter responsible for the rest of the iconographic programme or he was a single artist skilled in both Western and Levantine artistic traditions. The dynamic amalgamation of these varied artistic styles in Lebanon reflects the diverse cultural backgrounds of the artists, as well as the patrons, and their receptiveness to external models.
It is likely that artists had a catalogue of designs, allowing patrons to choose their preferred style and composition, resulting in greater personalisation and customisation in the artwork. This could explain the discovery of rare iconographic themes in geographically distant locations. For example, the six-winged angel swinging a censer in the apsidal composition is found only at the Saqiet el-Kheit hermitage in Lebanon and in such Spanish models as Sant Pau i Sant Pere in Esterri de Cardós. Another example is the image of seraphim purifying the lips of prophets, which is present in a series of eight painted programmes in Cappadocia and Egypt, as well as in a Catalan example, Santa Maria d’Àneu.
The studied artworks showcase the intricate interplay and artistic exchange among diverse Mediterranean cultures, demonstrating that the boundaries between East and West were either non-existent or not precisely delineated. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of these religious paintings, it is crucial to explore new research perspectives that extend beyond the established scholarship. The analysis of the liturgical context, the primary focus of this monograph, provides an intrinsic perspective that elucidates the complex nature of the production and function of religious painting. Further investigation could attempt to explore the concept of the ‘beholder’s share’, particularly in understanding how the faithful perceive, interpret and experience iconographic and theological themes within ecclesiastical structures. Drawing on reception theory, this approach could explore the sensory dimensions of religious experience, examining how verbal, visual and sensory elements of worship are interconnected. By doing so, it would raise important questions about the role of churchgoers in engaging with and inhabiting sacred spaces, offering fresh insights into how these environments affect and shape their spiritual and social lives. Admittedly, such an approach would be challenging due to the lack of written and material sources in the Lebanese space. Additionally, it is worth investigating the nuanced roles of patrons, both female and male, in shaping the artistic production of religious paintings in the Eastern Mediterranean through their motivations, tastes and aspirations. These perspectives would not only deepen our understanding of religious art and architecture, but also highlight the active participation of believers and patrons in the dynamic process of meaning-making and artistic expression within the church.
Finally, exploring the material culture reflected in these sacred paintings, with a particular focus on the textiles, bookbinding and woodwork, as well as their associated trade networks, could emphasise the economic and transcultural landscape of the region. Analysing the depiction of fabrics can reveal much about the extensive textile manufacturing that thrived in the area. This includes, for example, the renowned cotton production of Baalbek during the Middle Ages, which held significant importance both locally and on the international stage. It is a type of fabric which continues to thrive in folkloric and artisanal production today, reflecting a long-standing tradition of craftsmanship. Similarly, delving into the production of manuscripts, as reflected by those held by some depicted figures, such as Christ, the apostles and bishops, as well as the wooden furnishings in these paintings, could offer worthwhile insights into regional bookbinding, woodworking and decorative traditions. This examination could enhance our understanding of the distinctive skills of artisans and the aesthetic preferences of the period, shedding light on how material culture and artistic expression intersected with religious, economic, cultural and societal values, as well as the role of trade networks. Such a comprehensive approach may enable a deeper appreciation of how medieval ecclesiastical paintings not only fulfilled religious and functional purposes, but also acted as symbols of cultural diversity and artistic excellence.