0.1 Candles and oil lamps lit during morning liturgical service. The candles placed in front of the menologion icons interact with their gilded surfaces, drawing attention to them. Feast of Saint Catherine (25.11.2023), Church of Saint Catherine’s Monastery (ca. 548–565), Mount Sinai 5
0.2 Lit candle placed on the main altar and oil lamps hanging over the reliquary of Saint Catherine during early morning liturgical service. Feast of Saint Catherine (25.11.2023), Church of Saint Catherine’s Monastery (ca. 548–565), Mount Sinai 6
0.3 Candles and oil lamps lit during nocturnal liturgical service. Church of Saint Catherine’s Monastery (ca. 548–565), Mount Sinai 6
1.1 Nave of church of Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai in early evening 21
1.2 Nave of church of Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai during Christmas vigil 2005 (old calendar) 22
1.3 Narthex of the 14th-century church at Dečani Monastery in natural light 24
1.4 Narthex of the church at Dečani Monastery at night 25
1.5 Icons of the 12th-century Deesis in daylight, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai 26
1.6 Icons of the Deesis at Christmas vigil 2005, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai 27
1.7 Icon of Saint James in natural or simulated natural light, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai 29
1.8 Icon of Saint James the night of Good Friday, 2006, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai 30
1.9 Color temperatures of various light sources 32
1.10 Spectral reflectance of enamel paints 33
1.11 Luminance of Sinai icon of Saint James, night of Holy Friday, 2006 35
1.12 Icon of Virgin, Child, and Saints as displayed at the Metropolitan Museum, New York, December 2023, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai 36
1.13 Icon of Virgin, Child, and Saints photographed with yellow filter, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai 37
1.14 El Greco, Dormition of Virgin, Church of the Dormition of the Virgin, Ermoupolis, Syros, before 1567 39
1.15 El Greco, Assumption of Virgin, 1577–1579, Art Institute of Chicago 40
1.16 Silos, Monasterio de Santo Domingo, altarpiece, 1577–1579 42
2.1 Plan of Tokalı Kilise, Göreme, Cappadocia, Türkiye 51
2.2 North buckle with the Nativity and Annunciation paintings, Tokalı Kilise, Göreme, Cappadocia, Türkiye 54
2.3 Meeting of the Lord in the Temple painting, Karabaş Kilise, Soğanlı, Cappadocia, Türkiye 55
2.4 South buckle with the Pentecost painting, Tokalı Kilise, Göreme, Cappadocia, Türkiye 60
2.5 Detail of the Pentecost painting, Tokalı Kilise, Göreme, Cappadocia, Türkiye 61
2.6 Daphni monastery, Chaidari, Greece 62
2.7 Annunciation mosaic, Church of Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio (the Martorana), Palermo, Italy 63
2.8 Nativity and Adoration of the Magi paintings, Tokalı Kilise, Göreme, Cappadocia, Türkiye 66
2.9 Pentecost mosaic, katholikon, Hosios Loukas Monastery, Boeotia, Greece 69
3.1 Interior of nave in natural light, Basilica of San Marco, Venice, consecrated 1094 79
3.2 Interior of west bay of nave with Pentecost dome and clerestory of south aisle, Basilica of San Marco, Venice, mosaic, ca. 1200 80
3.3 Interior of naos of katholikon, Hosios Loukas, Phocis, early 11th century 82
3.4 Original carved window screen from Hosios Loukas, Museum of Hosios Loukas, early 11th century 83
3.5 Carved window screens, stone, Mosque of Ibn Tulun, Cairo, 876–879 84
3.6 Carved window screens, stone, Porta di Sant’Alippio, Basilica of San Marco, Venice, ca. 1270 85
3.7 Byzantine rock crystal lamp, Tesoro di San Marco, Basilica of San Marco, Venice, 6th century 86
3.8 “Chiocca”, lighting device suspended from the central dome, cast bronze, Basilica of San Marco, Venice, 13th–14th century 88
3.9 “Chiocca”, detail of the hen, cast bronze, Basilica of San Marco, Venice, 13th–14th century 88
3.10 Mamluk lighting device, cast bronze, Egypt, 1342, Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo, inv. 1482 90
3.11 Hanging Lamp in the Form of a Peacock, cast copper alloy, 6th–7th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Fletcher Fund, 1961, accession number: 61.111a, b 92
3.12 The Baptism of the Nations, mosaic, Baptistery of San Marco, Venice, 1342–1355 95
4.1 Choros (detail), bronze, Dečani Monastery, naos, 1335–1397 104
4.2 Christ Pantokrator with the celestial liturgy and the consoles for the attachment of the choros, Dečani Monastery, central dome, 14th century 105
4.3 Shrine of Holy King Stefan with an original manoualion and a marble rosette on the floor, Dečani Monastery, naos, 14th century 106
4.4 Dormition of the Virgin with three manoualia, Saint Nicholas church at Varoš, Prilep, 1298 110
4.5 Liturgy of the Holy Fathers with the depiction of manoualia, Dečani Monastery, narthex, 1345–1348 111
4.6 Proskomedia service by Saint Cyril with a depiction of a hanging lamp, katholikon of Markov Monastery near Skopje, prothesis, 1376–1377 112
4.7 Icon of the Virgin with an attached kandilo, Dečani Monastery, iconostasis, 14th century 113
4.8 Christ with the sword, image with the traces of damage in the upper and lower parts, Dečani Monastery, naos, 1337–1345 114
4.9 Christ Pantokrator above the entrance from the narthex to the naos, a cherub giving scrolls to King Stefan Uroš III and King Stefan Dušan and a metal hook for hanging a lamp, Dečani Monastery, narthex, 1345–1348 116
4.10 The monks of Dečani Monastery during the night vigil (agrypnia) with a lit choros and the opened shrine of Saint King Stefan, Dečani Monastery, naos 119
4.11 The choros after it was swung by the monks during the agrypnia, Dečani Monastery, naos 121
4.12 The beginning of agrypnia at Vatopedi Monastery, katholikon of Vatopedi Monastery, Mount Athos 124
5.1 Evolution of window surface 136
5.2 View of the interior. Church of San Vincenzo, Galliano, Lombardy, 1007 140
5.3 Plan and section of the nave and crypt. Church of San Vincenzo, Galliano, Lombardy, 1007 141
5.4 North side. Church of San Vincenzo, Galliano, Lombardy, 1007 142
5.5 Murals on the north interior wall. Church of San Vincenzo, Galliano, Lombardy, 1007 143
5.6 Main apse. Church of San Vincenzo, Galliano, Lombardy, 1007 144
5.7 Plan and section. Churches of San Pietro al Monte e San Benedetto, Civate, Lombardy, 11th century 147
5.8 Interior, view toward the east, Church of San Pietro al Monte, Civate, Lombardy, 11th century 148
5.9 Southern side before the 1879 restoration. Church of San Pietro al Monte, Civate, Lombardy, 11th century 149
5.10 Interior, view toward the west, Church of San Pietro al Monte, Civate, Lombardy, 11th century 151
5.11 Crypt. Church of San Pietro al Monte, Civate, Lombardy, 11th century 154
5.12 Mural showing wise virgin with torch and oil ampulla. Crypt, church of San Pietro al Monte, Civate, Lombardy, 11th century 155
5.13 Interior, view toward the presbytery. Church of San Nicolao, Giornico, Ticino, 12th century 158
5.14 Facade, before restoration. Church of San Nicolao, Giornico, Ticino, 12th century 160
5.15 Interior, view of the facade. Church of San Nicolao, Giornico, Ticino, 12th century 163
5.16 Interior before restoration. Church of San Nicolao, Giornico, Ticino, 12th century 164
6.1 Riga, Cathedral, exterior 178
6.2 Riga, Saint Peter’s Parish Church, exterior 180
6.3 Riga, Saint Peter’s Parish Church, interior 181
6.4 Riga, Saint Peter’s Parish Church seven-branched candelabrum 184
6.5 Riga, Saint Catherine’s Franciscan Church, floor plan (detail) 186
7.1 Ground-plan of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 9th century. Zurich, Zentralbibliothek, Ms. Rh. 73, fol. 5r 199
7.2 Ground-plan of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 10th century. This version of the plan depicts the presence of twelve lamps at the Aedicule. Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Lat. 458, fol. 4v 200
7.3 Produced in Limoges, this Eucharistic dove of gilded copper and enamel champlevé has a heart-shaped lid on its back, and an engraved cross on the underside of the walled city at its feet. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, BK-17205, ca. 1225–1250 204
7.4 The upper register of this page depicts Christ leaning down from Heaven and dispatching the Holy Spirit in the shape of a dove to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, where it enters the oculus in the Rotunda’s dome. In the lower register, the dove is shown arriving at the Aedicule that covers the Tomb at the centre of the Rotunda, where the hanging lamps wait. Two candles have been drawn – the wick of one in the act of catching fire, and that of the other as already burning. Vatican City, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Urbinate latino 1362, 14th century, fol. 1v 205
7.5 Lantern in the form of a domed building, 12th century (?). Of Islamic or Byzantine manufacture, this ceramic lantern from the Holy Land has a stopper that can be removed and piercings that appear cross-shaped. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks, BZ.1950.39 208
7.6 Silver-gilt, silver and copper lantern-reliquary, with enameled monogram, 10th–11th century (?). Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne, Abbaye Saint-Pierre, Trésor de l’Abbatiale 209
7.7 Lead ampulla depicting the Church of the Holy Sepulchre with lamps suspended from arches, 12th–13th century (?). London, British Museum, asset number 1613337106 211
7.8 Lead ampulla depicting the Crucifixion and the Empty Tomb of Christ, 6th–7th century. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks, BZ.1948.18 212
7.9 Cambridge, Church of the Holy Sepulchre or Round Church, ca. 1130. Although the building is understood to have been meant to evoke the Rotunda in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, it also resembles the Dome of the Rock, which at the time of construction was controlled by the Templars 215
7.10 Mtskheta, Svetitskhoveli Cathedral, Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre imitating the Aedicule, 13th–14th century (?) 216
8.1 Byzantine choros, bronze, Munich. Archäologische Staatssammlung, no inv. no, 13th–14th century 229
8.2 Amalfitans’ candelabra, bronze, Great Lavra, Mount Athos, 10th–12th century 234
8.3 Apse with candlesticks depiction, fresco, Monastery of the Mother of God Petritzonitissa in Bačkovo, Ossuary, 14th century 236
8.4 Lighting implements, katholikon of Dečani Monastery, ca. 1327–1334 241
8.5 Choros with lit candles, bronze, katholikon of Dečani Monastery, ca. 1343 243
8.6 Choros with suspending chains, bronze, katholikon of Dečani Monastery, ca. 1343 248
8.7 Candelabrum, bronze, katholikon of Dečani Monastery, ca. 1343 249
8.8 Candleholder, wood and stone, Dečani Monastery, ca. 15th–16th century 250
8.9 The Officiating Church Fathers – Saint Basil the Great and Saint John Chrysostom, fresco, katholikon of Dečani Monastery, ca. 1338–1348 252
8.10 Ark of the Covenant, fresco, katholikon of Dečani Monastery, ca. 1338–1348 252
8.11 Communion of the Apostles, detail, fresco, katholikon of Dečani Monastery, ca. 1338–1348 255
8.12 Last Judgment, detail, two angels and the personification of the sun, fresco, katholikon of Dečani Monastery, ca. 1338–1348 255
9.1 Blessing of the fountain during Theophany, Vatopedi Monastery, Mount Athos 273
9.2 Translation of relics, ivory, Trier, 4th century 276
9.3 Deacons holding big candles (lampades) during the entrance of the Eucharistic liturgy, feast of the Transfiguration, Vatopedi Monastery, Mount Athos 277
9.4 Procession of the Blessing of the fountain during Theophany, Vatopedi Monastery, Mount Athos 283
9.5 Depiction of the Translation of the hand of saint John the Baptist into the Great Palace of Constantinople, 12th century. Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional de España, Ms. Graecus Vitr. 26-2, fol. 138v 286
9.6 Fol. 6v of Greek MS HAAB Q 740. At the end of line 14 one can read
10.1 Noto (Syracuse), Santa Lucia di Mendola, plan. In the added red box, the hypogean church 303
10.2 Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, polycandelon inv. 47054 from Santa Lucia di Mendola 303
10.3 1–5. Catania, Civic Museum “Castello Ursino”, polycandelon inv. 195–199 304
10.4 1. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, polycandelon inv. 47053 from Santa Lucia di Mendola; 2. Catania, Civic Museum “Castello Ursino”, polycandelon inv. 201; 3. Palermo, Archaeological Museum “Antonino Salinas”, polycandelon inv. 28289; 4. Catania, Civic Museum “Castello Ursino”, polycandelon inv. 200 305
10.5 Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, inv., vol. XIV, 207, inv. 43746–43753 (1924) 307
10.6 1. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, polycandelon inv. 43749; a. Archaeological Museum of Messara (Crete, Greece), polycandelon from the church of Saint Titus, Gortyn (formerly in the Historic Museum of Heraklion, inv. 182); b. London, British Museum, Lampsacus Treasure, silver polycandelon inv. 1848, 0601 308
10.7 1. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, polycandelon inv. 37562 from Santa Lucia di Mendola; 2. Catania, Soprintendenza BB. CC. AA, polycandelon inv. 15354 from Rocchicella di Mineo, Catania 309
10.8 1–2. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, polycandela, inv. 81034, 43751 311
10.9 1. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, polycandelon inv. 40902, from Avola (Noto); a. London, British Museum inv. 1994, 0610.7, Malcove Collection 315
10.10 1–2. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, lampstand bases, inv. 16064, 16063 from Catania; a. London, British Museum, lampstand from Edfu, Egypt, inv. 1923, 0512.384 316
10.11 1. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, lamps from Catania, inv. 16061; 2. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, lampstand from Syracuse inv. 105645; a. Kansas City, William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art and Atkins Museum, lamp and lampstand inv. 57.107; b. Damascus, National Museum, lamp, inv. 10325, AN 52 317
10.12 1. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”; lamp from Catania, inv. 16060; 2. Catania, Civic Museum “Castello Ursino”, lamp inv. 3301, Biscari Collection 319
10.13 1. Syracuse, Archaeological Museum “Paolo Orsi”, lamp and lampstand from the Plemmyrion shipwreck, inv. 57520, 57527; 2. Catania, Civic Museum “Castello Ursino”, candlestick base (possible reuse), inv. 3212; a. Berlin, formerly at the Kaiser-Friedrich Museum, inv. I. 2484 321
11.1 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, interior view in the naos facing east, daylight photograph 337
11.2 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, floor plan with the disposition of lights at important locations within the church interior 342
11.3 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, computer model with the disposition and elevations of lights at important locations within the church interior 343
11.4 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, computer model with the recreated light system during night 345
11.5 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, computer model with the recreated light system during evening and night services, in the naos, view towards east, towards the sanctuary and templon screen (iconostasis) with a-up) the holy doors closed; b-down) the holy doors open 348
11.6 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, computer model with the recreated light system during evening and night services in the naos, view towards southeast, showing icon stand, episcopal throne, choir stand, and the kivot (casket with the relics of the saint) 349
11.7 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, computer model with the recreated light system during evening and night services in the naos, view towards northeast, showing icon stand, choir stand, and the kivot 350
11.8 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, computer model with the recreated light system during evening and night services in the sanctuary, view towards east, showing altar table and view of the priest 351
11.9 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, interior illumination visualization based on luminosity calculations during night, in the naos, view towards east, towards the sanctuary and templon screen (iconostasis) with the holy doors open 354
11.10 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, interior illumination visualization based on luminosity calculations during night, in the naos, view towards southeast, showing icon stand, episcopal throne, choir stand, and the kivot 355
11.11 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, interior illumination visualization based on luminosity calculations during night, in the naos, view towards northeast, showing icon stand, choir stand, and the kivot 356
11.12 The Church of the Mother of God at Studenica Monastery, Serbia, finished before 1208/1209, interior illumination visualization based on luminosity calculations during night, in the sanctuary, view towards east, showing altar table and view of the priest 358
12.1 Sunlight flooding the presbytery through the apse windows, enveloping the altar and liturgical furnishings placed on it, while sunrays enter the nave through two windows paired with representations of the theophanies witnessed by Moses. Easter week (23.04.2025), Church of Saint Catherine’s Monastery (ca. 548–565), Mount Sinai 371
12.2 Mosaic decoration showing the pairing of windows with representations of the theophanies witnessed by Moses and the mark (above the head of Christ, in the halo) left by the now lost chandelier that illuminated the depiction of the Transfiguration in the apse. Church of Saint Catherine’s Monastery (ca. 548–565), Mount Sinai 372
12.3 View of the iconostasis and presbytery during the celebration of the Eucharistic liturgy, showing the overlapping of natural and artificial light on the altar with a parish member lighting a candle, thus contributing to the mise-en-scène. Church of the Holy Cross, built 1487, Pătrăuți, Moldavia (modern Romania) 373