1.1 Pieter Aertsen, Butcher’s Stall with the Flight into Egypt, 1551. Oil on panel, 123.3 × 150 cm. Uppsala, Gustavianum Uppsala University Museum 27
1.2 Samuel van Hoogstraten, Old Man at the Window, 1653. Oil on canvas, 111 × 86.5 cm. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum 32
1.3 Samuel van Hoogstraten, Trompe l’Oeil Still Life, 1664. Oil on canvas, 46 × 58 cm. Dordrecht, Dordrechts Museum 33
1.4 Samuel van Hoogstraten, title page to Inleyding tot de Hooge Schoole der Schilderkonst: Anders de Zichtbaere Werelt, 1678, Nijmegen, Radboud Universiteit, Universiteitsbibliotheek 34
1.5 Samuel van Hoogstraten, Self-Portrait, 1677–78. Etching, 16.2 × 12.3 cm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum 50
1.6 Samuel van Hoogstraten, Self-Portrait, 1677. Oil on panel, 20 × 16.4 cm. Dordrecht, Museum Simon van Gijn 51
2.1 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Illustrations by Petrarca Master, often identified with Hans Weiditz in Augsburg, produced ca. 1520. Wheel of Fortune, frontispiece beside title page 62
2.2 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Wheel of Fortune, Book One, Chapter 90 63
2.3 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Athena with Arachne as Spider, Book One, Chapter 7 65
2.4 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Job with Boils amid his Herds, Book One, Chapter 59 66
2.5 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Coronation of the Pope, Mocked from Behind, Book One, Chapter 107 66
2.6 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Diviners and Necromancers, Book One, Chapter 112 68
2.7 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Clergy Devotion before a Demon as St. Peter Receives Keys to the Kingdom from Heaven, Book One, Chapter 13 70
2.8 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Lack of Virtue: Spinster Led by an Angel toward Heaven via Thorns, while Flogged from behind by Fool, Book Two, Chapter 104 72
2.9 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Anger: Witch Beating Ass as Groom Struggles Bareback, Book Two, Chapter 107 73
2.10 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Sloth: Witch Inspires Dreams of Sleeper with Bellows, Book Two, Chapter 109 74
2.11 Francesco Petrarca, Von der Artzney bayder Glück, des guten und widerwärtigen (Augsburg: Heynrich Steyner, 1532). Fearful Deathbed with Uncertain Burial, Book Two, Chapter 132, dated 1520 75
3.1 Albrecht Dürer, Seated Man of Sorrows, 1515. Etching, 11.0 × 6.5 cm. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. A 3359 86
3.2 Albrecht Dürer, Ecce Homo (Man of Sorrows with Bound Hands), 1512. Drypoint, 11.7 × 7.6 cm. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. A 3358 87
3.3 Daniel Hopfer, Christ as the Man of Sorrows, c.1500. Etching, 22.0 × 14.9 cm. Albertina, Vienna, inv. no. D/I/28/10 90
3.4 Albrecht Dürer, Christ on the Mount of Olives, 1515. Etching, 22.5 × 16.6 cm. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. A 1953/1298 92
3.5 Albrecht Dürer, The Abduction on the Unicorn, 1516. Etching, 31.0 × 21.0 cm. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. A 3405 95
3.6 Albrecht Dürer, The Desperate Man, undated. Etching, 18.0 × 13.1 cm. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. A 3403 99
3.7 Albrecht Dürer, An Angel Holding the Sudarium, 1516. Etching, 18.4 × 13.3 cm. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. A 3363 101
3.8 Albrecht Dürer, Two Angels Holding the Sudarium, 1513. Engraving, 10.0 × 13.8 cm. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. A 1965/GL 899 103
3.9 Daniel Hopfer, The Sudarium Held by Two Angels, c.1515. Etching, 2nd state, 8.5 × 12.1 cm. The Metropolitan Museum New York, The Elisha Whittelsey Collection, The Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1951, inv. no. 51.501.360 104
3.10 Albrecht Dürer, Landscape with a Cannon, 1518. Etching, 22.3 × 32.3 cm. Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. A 3431 107
4.1 Jan Pietersz Beelthouwer, Chaos (with inscription
4.2 Jan Pietersz Beelthouwer, Chaos (with inscription STATUARIUS). Amsterdam, 1663. Boxwood, 22.5 cm high. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, inv. BK-2021-215 (Purchased with support of the Rijsterborgh Fund/Rijksmuseum Fund) 114
4.3 Jan Pietersz Beelthouwer, Chaos (with inscription INVENTOR). Amsterdam, 1663. Boxwood, 22.5 cm high. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, inv. BK-2021-215 (Purchased with support of the Rijsterborgh Fund/Rijksmuseum Fund) 115
4.4 Jan Pietersz Beelthouwer, Chaos (with inscription AMSTERDAMI 1663). Amsterdam, 1663. Boxwood, 22.5 cm high. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, inv. BK-2021-215 (Purchased with support of the Rijsterborgh Fund/Rijksmuseum Fund) 115
4.5 Hendrick Goltzius (design) and workshop (execution), Creating the Four Elements, Haarlem, 1589. Engraving, 176 × 252 mm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, inv. RP-P-1882-A-6343 119
4.6 Johan Theodor de Bry, Chaos (et sic in infinitum), in Robert Fludd’s Utriusque cosmi maioris scilicet et minoris metaphysica, physica atque technica historia: in duo volumina secundum cosmi differentiam divisa, Oppenheim (with Hieronymus Galerus) 1617, p. 26 120
4.7 Louis Finson, The Four Elements, Naples, 1611. Oil on canvas, 179 × 170 cm. Houston, Museum of Fine Arts, inv. BF.2018.1, on loan from the Sarah Campbell Blaffer Foundation, Houston 122
4.8 Detail from J.P. Beelthouwer’s Dialogus; (dat is, Disputatie, Reden, ‘t Samen-gespreck;) over Godt, Gods-dienst en H. Schrifture, Tusschen een Theologant en Philosooph, ofte Godt-geleerde, en Vrient des Wijsheyts, Amsterdam (with Pieter Arentsz) 1664, p. 15 133
4.9 Artist from the circle of Gossaert, St. George and the Dragon (front), Southern Netherlands, c.1530. Boxwood, 27.8 cm. Victoria & Albert Museum, inv. A.30-1951 135
4.10 Artist from the circle of Gossaert, St. George and the dragon (back), Southern Netherlands, c.1530. Boxwood, 27.8 cm. Victoria & Albert Museum, inv. A.30-1951 136
4.11 Spoons in a trunk of limewood. Basel, c.1580, from the Amerbach Cabinet, Basel, Historisches Museum, inv. HMB 1870-1043 c7596 137
4.12 Leonard Kern, Abundance, Schwäbisch Hall, before 1647. Walrus jawbone and walrus tooth, h. 43.2 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Kunstkammer, inv. KK 4547 138
5.1 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, December/January (aka the Hunters in the Snow) from the series of the Months, 1565. Oil on panel, 117 × 162 cm. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum 145
5.2 The door to Gibarian’s quarters, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 147
5.3 Hari contemplating five paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (from l to r: Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (then attributed to Bruegel), the Hunters in the Snow, the Grain Harvest, the Gloomy Day, and the Vienna Tower of Babel) with her hand resting on a copy of Don Quixote illustrated by Gustave Doré, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 149
5.4 Bearing of the Cross viewed at an elevated distance, Andrei Tarkovsky, Andrei Rublev. 1966; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2018 152
5.5 A bird alights atop a child’s head, Andrei Tarkovsky, Mirror. 1975; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2021 154
5.6 A still from Kris’s family films, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 156
5.7 Closeup shot of the Hunters in the Snow, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 160
5.8 Closeup shot of the Hunters in the Snow, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 160
5.9 Closeup shot of the Hunters in the Snow, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 160
5.10 Kris and Hari in zero gravity, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 161
5.11 Gustave Doré’s illustration of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza floats through the library, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 161
5.12 Pieter Bruegel, Hunters in the Snow. Detail of the bird trap with a hidden fowler 163
5.13 Hari, Kris, and Sartorius in a corridor of the space station, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 167
5.14 Kris and a bird cage in his father’s house, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 168
5.15 Kris, the Hunters in the Snow, and the mutable memory of his mother, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 171
5.16 Hari’s eyes reflected in the fabric of the space station, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 174
5.17 A pile of stuff on a console in Snaut’s quarters, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 174
5.18 A pile of stuff on a console in Snaut’s quarters, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 175
5.19 Kris recollecting, revisiting, and reshaping the house of his father, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; New York, New York: Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 178
5.20 Long shot of Kris having marooned himself on the surface of the planet, Andrei Tarkovsky, Solaris. 1972; Criterion Collection/Janus Films, 2011 178
6.1 Gerard David, Nativity Triptych, c.1510–1515. Oil on canvas transferred from wood, central panel 90.2 × 71.1 cm and each wing 90.2 × 31.4 cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, inv. no. 49.7.20a–c. Artwork in public domain 186
6.2 Rogier van der Weyden, Central panel of Triptych of the Nativity, c.1450. Oil on wood, 89 × 91 cm. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin / Dietmar Gunne, inv. no. 535. Artwork in public domain 187
6.3 Hans Memling, Diptych of Maarten van Nieuwenhove, 1487. Oil on wood, 33.5 × 44.7 cm. Museum Sint-Janshospitaal, Bruges, www.artinflanders.be, photo by Hugo Maertens, inv. no. SJ0178.I. Artwork in public domain 188
6.4 Robert Campin, Mérode Triptych, c.1427–1432. Oil on wood, 64.5 × 117.8 cm. Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Cloisters Collection, New York City, inv. no. 56.70a–c. Artwork in public domain 188
6.5 Robert Campin, Seilern Triptych, c.1425. Oil on wood, central panel 60 × 48.9 cm and wings 60 × 22.5 cm. The Courtauld, London (Samuel Courtauld Trust), inv. no. P.1978.PG.253 189
6.6 Rogier van der Weyden, Farewell at the Tomb, c.1460–1463. Oil on wood, 96 × 110 cm. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, inv. no. 00285820 190
6.7 Fra Angelico, Entombment, 1438–1440. Tempera on wood, 37.9 × 46.6 cm. Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Alte Pinakothek, Wittelsbacher Ausgleichsfonds, Munich, inv. no. WAF 38 a 192
6.8 Fra Angelico, San Marco Altarpiece, c.1438–1443. Tempera on wood, 220 × 227 cm. Museo Nazionale di San Marco, Florence, inv. 1890 no. 8506. Artwork by concession of the Ministero della Cultura—Direzione regionale Musei Nazionali Toscana—Firenze 193
6.9 Detail of Fig. 6.8 196
6.10 Detail of Fig. 6.6 200
6.11 Jan van Eyck, Detail from Adoration of the Mystic Lamb from Ghent Altarpiece, 1432. Oil on wood. Sint-Baafskathedraal, Ghent, www.artinflanders.be, photo by Dominque Provost. Artwork in public domain, contractual restrictions 207
7.1 Rembrandt, The Entombment, 1639. Oil on canvas, 93 × 69 cm. Alte Pinakothek, Munich, inv. no. 396 211
7.2 Rembrandt, The Resurrection, 1639. Oil on canvas, 92 × 67 cm. Alte Pinakothek, Munich, inv. no. 397 212
7.3 Rogier van der Weyden, The Descent from the cross, c.1435. Oil on oak panel, 220 × 262 cm. Museo del Prado, Madrid, inv. no. P002825 216
7.4 Rogier van der Weyden, The Descent from the Cross (detail) 217
7.5 Compunctio Cordis, Clavo Timoris Dei. From: Benedictus van Haeften and Boëtius à Bolswert, Schola Cordis (Antwerp: Hieronymus T. Verdussen, 1629), fol. 556 229
7.6 Rembrandt, The Raising of the Cross, 1633. Oil on canvas, 95.7 × 72.2 cm. Alte Pinakothek, Munich, inv. no. 394 232
8.1 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Children’s Games, signed and dated 1560. Oil on oak panel, 116.4 × 160.3 cm. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Picture Gallery, inv. no. GG 1017 241
8.2 Detail of Children’s Games: tug-of-war 250
8.3 Detail of Children’s Games: leap frog 252
8.4 Detail of Children’s Games: spinning tops 254
8.5 Detail of Children’s Games: testing barrels and running with pig’s bladder 255
8.6 Detail of Children’s Games: hanging from a rail and balancing a broom 257
8.7 Detail of Children’s Games: knucklebones 258
8.8 Theodore Galle (engraver), after Peter Paul Rubens, Optical demonstration (incipit for Book 3) in Franciscus Anguilonius, Opticorum libri sex philosophis iuxta ac mathematicis utiles 262
9.1 Pieter Aertsen, Return from a Pilgrimage to St. Anthony, c.1550. Oil on panel, 110 × 170 cm. Royal Museums of Fine Arts, Brussels, inv. no. 7524 272
9.2 Pieter Aertsen, Return from a Pilgrimage to St. Anthony, detail 273
9.3 Adriaen Pietersz. Van de Venne, Kinder-spel. Ex nugis seria, in Jacob Cats, Houwelick. Dat is het gansche gelegenheyt des echten-staets (Middelburg: Jan Pieterss vande Venne, 1625) 273
9.4 Pieter Bruegel, Children’s games, 1560. Oil on panel, 116 × 161 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, inv. no. GG 1017 274
9.5 Pieter Bruegel, Children’s games, detail 276
9.6 Our Lady of Duffel, c.1637, terracotta, Church of O.L. Vrouw van Goede Wil, Duffel 281
10.1 Asmat shield, carved wood. 1900, Florence: Museo Ethnografico 290
10.2 Bernardo Buontalenti and others, Palazzo Nonfinito, Florence, c.1592–1600, window frame 291
10.3 Engraving by Cornelis Bos of a grotesque figure. Pascal-Désir Maisonneuve (1863–1934), La tête aux larges oreilles. Lausanne: Collection de l’art brut. 292
10.4 Pompeï, House of the Vettii (VI.15.1), detail of a wall in the triclinium, showing candelabra and mythological scenes, 63–79 AD 294
10.5 Michelangelo Buonarroti, New Sacristy of San Lorenzo, Florence, 1526–34 295
10.6 Winged Gorgoneion as apotropaic decoration for a shield, early sixth century BC. Olympia: Archaeological Museum. Gorgoneion 297
10.7 Attributed to Jacopo Zucchi, Design for a Fountain with Perseus Killing Medusa and Pegasus, c.1600. Pen and brown ink, brown wash, 45.7 × 33.4 cm. Paris, Musée du Louvre, Cabinet des Estampes, inv. no. 4553 (recto) 299
10.8 Sebastiano Ricci, Perseus Confronting Phineus with the Head of Medusa, c.1705–10. Oil on canvas, 65 × 80 cm. Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum, inv. no. 86.PA.591 300
10.9 Medusa Rondanini, Roman copy after Praxiteles (Munich: Glyptothek) 302
10.10 Peter Paul Rubens, Medusa, c.1618. Oil on canvas, 68.5 × 118 cm. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum 303
10.11 Jacob Jordaens, The Triumph of Frederick Henry, 1652. Oil on canvas, 731 × 756 cm. The Hague: Huis ten Bosch, detail showing Medusa with a grotesque monster 304
10.12 Artus Quellinus, Medusa, 1650–52. Marble, 70 × 25 cm. Amsterdam, Koninklijk Paleis 305
10.13 Bernini (attr.), Bust of Medusa, c.1638–1648. Marble, Rome, Musei Capitolini 308
10.14 Cornelis Bos, Scrollwork, 1554. Engraving, 224 × 144 mm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, inv. no. RP-P-1898-A-20116 310
10.15 Cornelis Bos, Scrollwork, 1554. Engraving, 252 × 184 mm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, inv. no. RP-P-1964-2417 312
11.1 Jan Saenredam after Karel van Mander, The Adoration of the Shepherds, c.1598. Engraving on three plates: (left) 439 × 368 cm.; (center) 437 × 353 mm.; (right) 436 × 365 mm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-OB-10668A, B, C 318
11.2 Jan Saenredam after Hendrick Goltzius, Nativity with Adoration of the Shepherds, c.1595. Engraving, 143 × 270 mm. British Museum, London, inv. no. D,5.168 318
11.3 Jan Saenredam after Karel van Mander, The Adoration of the Shepherds, c.1598. Plate at left: Prophet, Shepherds, and Shepherdesses. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-OB-10668A 321
11.4 Jan Saenredam after Karel van Mander, The Adoration of the Shepherds, c.1598. Plate at center: Shepherds and Nativity. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-OB-10668B 322
11.5 Jan Saenredam after Karel van Mander, The Adoration of the Shepherds, c.1598. Plate at right: Sibyl, Shepherds, and Nativity. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-OB-10668C 323
11.6 Gillis van Breen after Karel van Mander, Hebt Lief: The Commandment of Love, c.1599. Engraving, 292 × 198 mm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-1952-243 332
11.7 Jacob Matham after Karel van Mander, New Year’s Blazon of the Young Haarlem Chamber of Rhetoric De wijngaertrancken, c.1600. Engraving, 343 × 255 mm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-1884-A-7667 333
11.8 Jacob Matham after Karel van Mander, Blazon of the Flemish Chamber of Rhetoric De witte angieren, 1602. Engraving, 334 × 247 mm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no.RP-P-OB-27.298X 334
11.9 Gillis van Breen after Karel van Mander, Schole Christi, 1599. Engraving, 302 × 202 mm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-1894-A-18315 342
12.1 Enclosed Garden, early sixteenth century. Mixed media, 124 × 158,5 × 33 cm. Mechelen, Museum of the Hospital Nuns, inv. no. GHZ BH001 352
12.2 Embroidery with Annunciation as an Enclosed Garden, and unicorn. Fifteenth century, 32,5 × 44 cm. Ebstorf, Damenstiftung, inv. no. EBS Hb 29 357
12.3 Robert Campin, Merode Triptych, c.1420–1425. Painting on wood, 64.5 × 117.8 cm. New York, The Cloisters, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 56.70a–c 359
12.4 Enclosed Garden, 1499. Mixed media, 132 cm × 186 cm × 20,5 cm. Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross, Bentlage 360
12.5 Gerard Leeu, The Souls in the Garden, Thoofkijn van devotien, colored woodprint. Antwerp, 1487, 19.6 cm. (4to). Ghent, University Library, Res. 169, fol. 16r 364
13.1 Albrecht Dürer, St. Jerome, c.1495–1496. Oil on panel, 23 × 17cm. London, National Gallery 375
13.2 Albrecht Dürer, Meteorite Impact (verso of St. Jerome), c.1495. Oil on panel, 23 × 17cm. 378
13.3 Josef Grünpeck and Blasius Hölzl discussing prodigies, from: Joseph Grünpeck, Prodigiorum interpretatio (Linz 1502). Innsbruck, Universitätsbibliothek, Hs 314, fol. 2v 382
13.4 Colored drawing with celestial miraculous sign, from: Jacob Mennel, De signis (Freiburg: 1503), Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Codex Vindobonensis Palatinus 4417*, fol. 7v 383
13.5 Colored drawing with sun, moon, celestial phenomena, and blood rain, from: Jacob Mennel, De signis (Freiburg: 1503). Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Codex Vindobonensis Palatinus 4417*, fol. 1v 384
13.6 Colored drawing with descent of rocky comet with fiery tails, from: Jacob Mennel, De signis (Freiburg: 1503). Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Codex Vindobonensis Palatinus 4417*, fol. 4v 385
14.1 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Adoration of the Magi, 1564. Oil on oak panel, 112.1 × 83.9 cm. London, National Gallery, inv. no. NG 3556. Bought with contributions from the Art Fund and Arthur Serena through the Art Fund, 1920 394
14.2 Virgin of Mercy, sixteenth century, vestments of later date. Wood, h. 127 cm. Cathedral of Our Lady, Antwerp 398
14.3 Rijksarchief Beveren, Kathedraalarchief, Rekeningen van de Gilde van Onze-Lieve-Vrouwe-Lof Antwerpen, gildejaar 1563–1564 401
14.4 Frans Hogenberg after Pieter Bruegel the Elder, published by Bartholomeus de Momper, Kermis at Hoboken, 1559–1561. Etching and engraving, 297 × 410 mm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-OB-7369 403
14.5 Lambert Suavius, Gaspar Schetz Corvinus, 1554. Engraving, 85 × 85 mm (sheet). Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg/Germany, inv. no. VII 22.30 406
14.6 Lambert Suavius, Melchior Schetz, 1554. Engraving, 84 × 82 mm (sheet). Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg/Germany, inv. no. VII 22.28 407
14.7 Lambert Suavius, Balthasar Schetz, Lord of Hoboken, 1561. Engraving, 84 × 84 mm (sheet). Coburg, Kunstsammlungen der Veste Coburg/Germany, inv. no. VII 22.31 408
14.8 Anonymous, Melchior Schetz, in Bundel betreffende het Landjuweel van Antwerpen van 1561, Antwerp, 1561 (?). Pen and wash on paper, 28.2 × 17.6 cm. Brussels, Koninklijke Bibliotheek van België, II 13.368 E RP, fol. 31r 409
14.9 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Painter and the Connoisseur, undated. Pen and ink on paper, 25. 5 × 21.2 cm. Vienna, Albertina Wien, inv. no. 7500 411
15.1 Jacopo and Francesco Dal Ponte (Bassano), Nightly Scene, c.1576–77. Oil on canvas, 88 × 117 cm, Corsham Court, Wiltshire, Methuen collection 417
15.2 Jacopo and Francesco Dal Ponte (Bassano), Christ in the House of Martha and Mary, c.1576–77. Oil on canvas, 98 × 126,5 cm. Houston, Sarah Campbell Blaffer Foundation, inv. 79.13 418
15.3 Jacopo Dal Ponte (Bassano), St. Valentine Baptizes St. Lucilla, c.1575, oil on canvas, 183,5 × 129,5 cm. Bassano del Grappa, Museo Civico, inv. 15 419
15.4 Follower or workshop of Jacopo Dal Ponte (Bassano), Nightly Scene, late sixteenth century. Oil on canvas, 104 × 143 cm. auction Vienna, Dorotheum, 31 March 2009, nr 34 421
15.5 Francesco Dal Ponte (Bassano), Nightly Scene, c.1576–77 or slightly later. Oil on canvas, 94,4 × 131 cm. Copenhagen, Thorvaldsens Museum, inv. B. 10 422
15.6 Dominikos Theotokopoulos, El Greco, Soplon, c.1570–72. Oil on canvas, 60,5 × 50,5 cm. Naples, Museo di Capodimonte, inv. Q192 424
15.7 Jacopo and Francesco Bassano, Puer sufflans ignem, c.1570–79. Oil on canvas, 49,5 × 63 cm. formerly New York, Victor Spark (1948) 425
15.8 Anonymous Venetian master (Leandro Dal Ponte (Bassano)?), Soplon, c. 1560–1600. Oil on canvas, 60 × 50 cm, Genoa. Museo di Palazzo Reale, inv. 927 426
15.9 Francesco Dal Ponte (Bassano), Weaver, c. 1585–1592. Oil on canvas, 92 × 85 cm. Rennes, Musée des Beaux-Arts, inv. 801.I.23 427
15.10 Gerrit Honthorst, Puer sufflans ignem, c. 1614. Oil on canvas, 97 × 71 cm. Rome, Galleria Fabio Massimo Megna 434
15.11 Pier Francesco Mola, Weaver, Oil on canvas, 60,5 × 72,5 cm. Rome, Accademia Nazionale di San Luca 435
16.1 Cornelis van Dalem, Landscape with the Dawn of Civilization, c.1565. Oil on panel, 88.5 × 164 cm. Museum Boymans van Beuningen, Rotterdam 444
16.2 Primitive dwellings. Detail, Figure 16.1 444
16.3 Bridge and herders. Detail, Figure 16.1 445
16.4 Jan Mostaert, Eve and Four Children, c.1520. Tempera and possibly oil on panel, 36.8 × 28.3 cm. Clark Art Institute, Williamstown 448
16.5 Vitruvius, Di Lucio Vitruvio Pollione de Architectura Libri Dece traducti de latino in Vulgare affigurati, comentati, & con virando ordine insigniti, with commentary by Cesare Cesariano, trans. Beneditto Biovio & Bono Mauro (Como: Gotardus de Ponte, 1521), f. XXXI v., Newberry Library 453
16.6 Vitruvius, Di Lucio Vitruvio Pollione de Architectura Libri Dece traducti de latino in Vulgare affigurati, comentati, & con virando ordine insigniti, with commentary by Cesare Cesariano, trans. Beneditto Biovio & Bono Mauro (Como: Gotardus de Ponte, 1521), f. XXXII r., Newberry Library 454
16.7 Vitruvius, Vitruvius Teutsch Nemlichen des aller namhafftigisten und hocherfarnesten Römischen Architekt und Kunstreichen Werck oder Baumeisters Marci Vitruuvij Pollionis Zehen Bücher von der Architectur und künstlichem Bawen, trans. and comm. Gualther Hermann Rivius (Nuremberg: Johan Petreius, 1548), f. XI r., Newberry Library 455
16.8 Vitruvius, Vitruvius Teutsch Nemlichen des aller namhafftigisten und hocherfarnesten Römischen Architekt und Kunstreichen Werck oder Baumeisters Marci Vitruuvij Pollionis Zehen Bücher von der Architectur und künstlichem Bawen, trans. and comm. Gualther Hermann Rivius (Nuremberg: Johan Petreius, 1548), f. XII r., Newberry Library 457
16.9 Cornelis van Dalem (attributed to), Temptation of St. Anthony, c.1560. Drawing, ink and gouache on paper, 27.5 × 42.1 cm. Frankfurt, Städel Museum Frankfurt 459
17.1 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio The Calling of St. Matthew, 1599–1600. Oil on canvas, 340 × 322 cm. Rome, San Luigi dei Francesi, Cappella Contarelli 470
17.2 Michelangelo, The Creation of Adam, c.1511. Fresco, 280 × 570 cm. Vatican, Sistine Chapel 470
17.3 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Calling of St. Matthew, detail, 1599–1600. Oil on canvas. Rome, San Luigi dei Francesi, Cappella Contarelli 473
17.4 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Cardsharps, detail, c.1595. Oil on canvas, 94.2 × 130.9 cm. Fort Worth, Kimbell Art Museum, inv. no. AP 1987.06 474
17.5 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Calling of St. Matthew, detail, 1599–1600. Oil on canvas. Rome, San Luigi dei Francesi, Cappella Contarelli 474
17.6 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Buona ventura, detail, 1596/97. Oil on canvas, 99 × 131 cm. Paris, Musée du Louvre, inv. no. 55 475
17.7 Hans Holbein the Younger, The Gambler (from Imagines mortis), 1555. Woodcut. München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Sign. Im.mort. 24 478
17.8 Hans Hersbach, The Calling of St. Matthew (Illustration for Jacob Feucht, Postilla Catholica Evangeliorum de Sanctis totius Anni), 1580. Woodcut, 106 × 139 mm. London, British Museum, inv. no. 1860,0114.387 484
17.9 Giuseppe Cesari, called Cavalier d’Arpino, The Calling of St. Matthew, c.1599. Chalk, red chalk on brownish paper, 22.3 × 26.4 cm. Vienna, Albertina, inv. no. 612 486
17.10 Cristoforo Roncalli, The Calling of St. Matthew. Rome, Palazzo Caetani 487
17.11 Collaert (after Ambrosius Francken), The Calling of St. Matthew, 1585. Engraving, 200 × 280 mm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, inv. no. RP-P-1988-312-282 488
17.12 Aristotele da Sangallo (after Michelangelo), Cascina-Battle, before 1519. Oil on wood, 76.4 × 130.2 cm. Norfolk, Holkham Hall, Collection of the Earl of Leicester 489
17.13 Marcantonio Raimondi (after Michelangelo), A nude man seen from behind, climbing onto a river-bank, c.1509. Engraving, 20.9 × 13.7 cm. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Arts, Anonymous Gift, 1929, inv. no. 29.44.5 490
17.14 Raphael and workshop, The Last Supper, detail, 1519. Fresco. Vatican, Palazzo Apostolico, Loggia di Raffaello 491
17.15 Michelangelo, Ignudo (mirrored), 1509. Fresco. Vatican, Sistine Chapel 492
17.16 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Calling of St. Matthew, detail, 1599–1600. Oil on canvas, 322 × 340 cm. Rome, San Luigi dei Francesi, Cappella Contarelli 496
17.17 Aegidius Sadeler II (after Pieter de Witte), Christ at Emmaus, c.1590. Engraving, 242 × 176 mm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, inv. no. RP-P-OB-5115 498
17.18 Jan Sanders van Hemessen, The Calling of St. Matthew, 1536. Oil on oakwood, 118.8 × 153.9 cm. Munich, Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlung, Alte Pinakothek, inv. no. 11 499
17.19 Raphael, The Calling of St. Peter, 1514. Pen and brown ink, brown wash and heightened with white over pencil sketch and pen in black, squared with black pencil, 221 × 354 mm. Paris, Musée du Louvre, Département des Arts Graphiques, inv. no. 3863 503
18.1 Hendrick ter Brugghen, The Liberation of Peter, 1624. Oil on canvas, 104.5 × 86.5 cm. The Hague, Mauritshuis. Artwork in public domain 513
18.2 Gerrit van Honthorst, The Liberation of Peter, 1616–1618. Oil on canvas, 131 × 181 cm. Berlin, Gemäldegalerie 513
18.3 Benjamin Cuyp, The Liberation of Peter, 48.7 × 39.7 cm. Oil on panel, 74.9 × 59.7 cm. Formerly London (sold Christie’s 2008) 515
18.4 Hendrick van Steenwijck the Younger, Christ in the Hall of the High Priest, with the Denial of Peter, before 1636. Oil on copper, 41 × 50 cm. Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado 519
18.5 Jusepe de Ribera, Liberation of St. Peter, 1639. Oil on canvas, 177 × 232 cm. Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado. Artwork in public domain 522
18.6 Jusepe de Ribera, Jacob’s Dream, 1639. Oil on canvas, 179 × 233 cm. Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado. Artwork in public domain 523
18.7 Raphael, Deliverance of St. Peter, 1514. Fresco, 660 cm width at base. Vatican City, Vatican Museums, Stanza di Eliodoro. Artwork in public domain 528
18.8 Antonio de Pereda y Salgado, St. Peter Freed by an Angel, 1643. Oil on canvas, 145 × 110 cm. Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado. Artwork in public domain 529
18.9 Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn (?), The Liberation of Peter, c.1640–1650. Paper, 195 × 222 mm. Frankfurt am Main, Städel Museum, inv. no. #858. Artwork in public domain 531
18.10 Abraham van Dyck, The Liberation of St. Peter, c.1652. Oil on canvas, 100.3 × 125.7 cm. Providence, RISD Museum. Artwork in public domain 532
19.1 Joachim Patinir, Landscape with Charon and the Human Soul, c.1520–1524. Oil on panel, 64 × 103 cm, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid, P001616 538
19.2 Joachim Patinir, Landscape with St. Christopher, c.1520–1524. Oil on panel, 127 × 172 cm, Patrimonio Nacional, Real Monasterio de San Lorenzo del Escorial, inv. no. 10014400 539
19.3 Hieronymus Bosch, St. Christopher Carrying the Christ Child, c.1500, oil on panel, 113 × 71.5 cm, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, St 26 541
19.4 Follower of Hieronymus Bosch, St. Christopher, 1520s (?). Oil on panel, 31 × 46 cm, Noordbrabants Museum, ’s-Hertogenbosch 542
19.5 Circle of Hieronymus Bosch, St. Christopher Carrying the Christ Child through a Sinful World, early 1520s. Oil on panel, 57.2 × 79.4 cm, Sarah Campbell Blaffer Foundation, Houston, 1979.1 542
19.6 Workshop of Hieronymus Bosch, The Temptations of St. Anthony Abbot, c.1510–1515. Oil on panel, 70 × 115 cm, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid, P002913 544
19.7 Johannes Wierix after Maarten de Vos, Triumphus Veritatis, 1579. Engraving, 44 × 34.5 cm, The British Museum, London, 1859,0709.2950 550
19.8 Unknown Leiden painter, Scenes from the Life of St. Anthony Abbot, c.1530–1535. Oil on panel, 66 × 106.5 cm, Museum De Lakenhal, Leiden, S1130 551
20.1 Pieter van der Heyden after Pieter Bruegel, The Sleeping Peddler robbed by the Apes, 1559. Engraving, 211 × 268 mm. Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-1885-A-9291 556
20.2 Pieter van der Heyden after Pieter Bruegel, Elck, 1558. Engraving, 230 × 297 mm. Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, Amsterdam, inv. no. RP-P-1879-A-3650 557
20.3 Pieter Bruegel, The Way to Calvary (detail), 1564. Oil on panel, 124 × 170 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, inv. no. num. Gemäldegalerie, 1025 559
20.4 Pieter Bruegel, The Beekeepers (detail), c.1568. Pen and ink, 203 × 309 mm, Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin, inv. no. KdZ 713 560
20.5 Hieronymous Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights – Hell, (detail), c. 1500. Oil on panel, 220 × 97 cm, Prado, Madrid 561
20.6 Hieronymous Bosch, Saint Jerome (detail), c.1485–1495. Oil on panel, 80,1 × 60,6 cm. Fine Arts Museum, Ghent 562
20.7 Pieter van der Heyden after Pieter Bruegel, Superbia, 1558. Engraving, 22,7 × 29,7 cm, Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, Amsterdam 565
20.8 Monogrammist HL, Holy Face, XVIth Century. Woodcut, 29,7 × 15,1 cm, Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, Amsterdam 569
20.9 Pieter Bruegel, Dulle Griet (detail), 1562. Oil on panel, 117,4 × 162 cm, Museum Mayer Van den Bergh, Antwerp 570
20.10 Anonymous, Mouth of Hell, Psalter of Blanche of Castile, 1223–1230. Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal, Paris, MS. Lat. 1186, f°171 v° 573
20.11 Master of Catherine of Cleves, Mouth of Hell, 1440, Hours of Catherine of Cleves. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, ms. 945, f°168v° 575
20.12 Master of Catherine of Cleves, Mouth of Hell with Communion, 1440, Hours of Catherine of Cleves. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York, ms. 945, f°105v° 576
21.1 Maarten van Heemskerk, Allegory of Nature, 1567. Oil on panel, 36.5 × 160 cm. Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena 587
21.2 Philips Galle, Prosopographia, sive virtutum, animi, corporis, bonorum externorum, vitiorum, et affectuum variorum delineation, c.1585–90, 19.3 × 15 cm. Rijksmuseum Amsterdam 588
21.3 Hercules Segers, Mountain Valley with a Plateau, c.1626–1630. Line etching with plate tone printed on pink prepared paper, 135 × 188 mm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, inv. no. RP-P-1961-868 589
21.4 Hercules Segers, Rocky Landscape with a Road and River, c.1622–1625. Line etching with plate tone, 162 × 246 mm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum, inv. no. RP-P-H-OB-833 590
21.5 Salomon van Ruysdael, River Scene, 1632. Oil on wood, 51.5 × 96.5 cm. London, National Gallery 596
22.1 Johann Heinrich Schönfeld, The Witch of Endor Conjuring up Samuel’s Ghost for Saul (1 Samuel 28: 7–20), c.1670. Pen and brush in blue-gray, on a proof impression of Gabriel Ehinger’s etching after Schönfeld’s design, 42.7 × 31.5 cm, Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, Graphische Sammlung, inv. no. C 517. Artwork in public domain Mark 1.0 605
22.2 Joseph Werner, The Witch of Endor Conjuring up Samuel’s Ghost for Saul (1 Samuel 28: 7–25). Brush and ink in black and gray, heightened with white, on gray-brown paper, 34.9 × 23 cm, Bern, Graphische Sammlung des Kunstmuseums, inv. no. A 1196 606
22.3 Joseph Werner, Pictura. Gouache on parchment, mounted on wood, 8.5 × 6.5 cm, Zurich, Graphische Sammlung des Kunsthauses, inv. no. 1944/14 615
22.4 Joseph Werner, Two Treasure Hunters Surprised by a Ghost in Chains, 1667–1680. Brush in black and gray over black charcoal, heightened with white, on light-brown paper, 35.3 × 22.2 cm, Hamburger Kunsthalle, Kupferstichkabinett, inv. no. 52309 617
22.5 Joseph Werner, A Ghost Appearing to Four Treasure Hunters, 1667–1680. Brush in black and gray over black charcoal, heightened with white, on light-brown paper, 35.3 × 22.8 cm, Hamburger Kunsthalle, Kupferstichkabinett, inv. no. 52310 618
22.6 Joseph Werner, Treasure Hunters Surprised by a Monster, 1667–1680. Brush in black and gray over black charcoal, heightened with white, on light-brown paper, 35.4 × 23.0 cm, Hamburger Kunsthalle, Kupferstichkabinett, inv. no. 52311 619
22.7 Joseph Werner, Treasure Hunters Plundering a Tomb Surprised by Ghosts, 1667–1680. Brush in black and gray over black charcoal, heightened with white, on light-brown paper, 34.8 × 22.5 cm, Hamburger Kunsthalle, Kupferstichkabinett, inv. no. 52312 620
22.8 Joseph Werner, The Sorceress Armida Summoning a Dragon, 1670–1680. Brush and ink in black and gray, heightened with white, on gray-brown paper, 35 × 22.3 cm, Bern, Graphische Sammlung des Kunstmuseums, inv. no. A 8421 624
22.9 Joseph Werner, A Sorceress at Study, 1670–1680. Brush and ink in black and white on brown paper, 34.5 × 23 cm. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett, inv. no. KdZ 6218 625
23.1 Roelandt Savery, Mountainous Landscape with a Draftsman, 1606. Brown ink on paper, 51.3 × 48.2 cm. Paris, Musée du Louvre, inv. no. 20721 recto 632
23.2 Claude Lorrain, Landscape with a Draftsman and his Companion, 10.2 × 16.8 cm. Engraving, first state. Paris, BNF 634
23.3 Claude Lorrain, Landscape, c.1630. Engraving, second state (with the figures burnished out), 10.2 × 16.8 cm. Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum 634
23.4 Hanns Lautensack, View of Nuremberg from the West [center section], 1552. Etching, 31 × 53.5 cm. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 22.67.7 637
23.5 View of Strasbourg [Argentorarum], in Georg Braun and Franz Hogenberg, Civitates Orbis Terrarum, 1572–1617. Herzogin-Anna-Amalia-Bibliothek, Weimar 639
23.6 Lucas van Valckenborch, View of Linz, 1593. Oil on wood, 24 × 36 cm. Frankfurt am Main, Städelsches Kunstinstitut, inv. no. 158 642
23.7 Albrecht Dürer, Mill with a Draftsman at work, c.1495. Ink on paper, 133 × 132 mm. Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett, inv. no. 3369 645
23.8 Joris Hoefnagel, Tiburtum vulgo Tivoli, 1578. Georg Braun and Franz Hogenberg, Civitates Orbis Terrarum, Paris, BNF 646
23.9 Albrecht Dürer, View of val d’Arco, c.1495. Watercolor on paper, 22.3 × 22.2 cm. Paris, Musée du Louvre 647
23.10 Ernst Mach, Self-portrait or View from the left eye, in Analyse der Empfindungen, Iena, 1886, p. 14 648
23.11 Joos de Momper, Draftsman and his Companions in a Cave, c.1616. Oil on wood, 61.2 × 93 cm. Bonn, Rheinisches Landesmuseum 649
23.12 After Pieter Bruegel, Prospectus Tyburtinus, c.1555–56. Etching and engraving, 30.9 × 42.6 cm. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 26.72.48 652
23.13 Rembrandt, Cottage and Farm Buildings with a Man Sketching, c.1645. Etching, 13 × 21 cm. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 62.664.1 653
23.14 Rembrandt, The Three Trees, 1643. Etching, engraving, and drypoint, 21.3 × 27.8 cm. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, inv. no. 29.107.31 655
23.15 Rembrandt, The Three Trees, detail of the draftsman 655
23.16 Rembrandt, The Three Trees, detail of hidden lovers 656
23.17 Johann II von Pfalz-Simmern, Eyn schön nützlich Büchlin und Underweising der Kunst des Messens, Siemeren, Hieron. Rodler, 1531, p. 89 658
23.18 Rembrandt, Landscape with Sportsman and Dogs, c.1653. Etching and drypoint, 11.5 × 15.4 cm. Washington, National Gallery of Art, inv. no. 1954.12.113 660
24.1 Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights Triptych, Exterior Wings: The Creation of the World, c.1490–1500. Oil on oak panel, 185.8 × 172.5 cm (central panel), 185.8 cm × 76.5 cm (each wing). Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. no. P002823 668
24.2 Martin Behaim (globe) and Georg I Glockendon (woodcut), Terrestrial Globe, globe: 1492–1494, ring: 1510. Globe: linen, wood, and colored woodcut; ring: engraved cast brass; and stand: painted iron, 51 cm (diameter), 133 cm (height). Nuremberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, inv. no. WI1826 671
24.3 Joachim Patinir, St. Christopher Carrying the Christ Child, c.1521. Oil on panel, 127 × 172 cm. San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Real Monasterio de San Lorenzo de El Escorial, inv. no. 10014400 673
24.4 Martin Behaim (globe) and Georg I Glockendon (woodcut), Terrestrial Globe, Eurasia, detail of Fig. 24.2 675
24.5 Southern Netherlandish artist (previously Jan van Amstel), The Legend of St. Christopher, third quarter of the sixteenth century. Oil on panel, 69 × 118 cm. Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, inv. no. 849 677
24.6 The Garden of Eden. Colored woodcut, 14.5 × 21.8 cm (image), 19.5 × 29.7 cm (page). From: Biblia, das ist, die gantze Heilige Schrifft Deudsch. Mart. Luth. (Wittenberg: Hans Lufft, 1536), 1: frontispiece. London, British Library, call no. 1.b.9 679
24.7 Martin Behaim (globe) and Georg I Glockendon (woodcut), Terrestrial Globe, Antarctica, detail of Fig. 24.2 681
24.8 Cornelis van Dalem, Landscape with the Dawn of Civilization, c.1560–1570. Oil on panel, 88.5 × 164 cm. Rotterdam, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, inv. no. 3363 (OK) 683
24.9 Flemish artist (previously Anthony van Dyck), Portrait of the Marine Painter Andries van Aertvelt, 1632. Oil on canvas, 176.5 × 229 cm. Schleissheim, Staatsgalerie im Neuen Schloss, inv. no. 4841 686