Subjectivity is necessarily embedded in place.2
1 Introduction
It is generally accepted that the first texts of Medieval Arabic travel literature date from the ninth-tenth centuries and that their main contents are descriptions of routes, cities, mores and people. This group of works, inherited from Roman itineraries, then grew with other texts of descriptive geography, creating a particular category of texts comprising travel information useful for trade and political interests.3 In the following centuries, Arabic travel writing turned into a successful style with many features. The main form involved recounting
Riḥla texts are autobiographical first-person written accounts focused on the journey to Mecca in the context of the Islamic pilgrimage (al-ḥaÄÄ),5 one of the pillars of Islam or pillars of the religion (arkÄn al-islÄm or arkÄn al-dÄ«n). The narrator of these riḥla texts is a Muslim man who has travelled to various cities and recounts his journey. His trip is a journey through different places until he reaches Mecca, the visit to the sacred places in Mecca itself, and the homeward journey. These texts usually include the mention of teachers and works that constituted the travellerâs learning on the long journey. This type of journey is known in Arabic as riḥla fÄ« á¹alab al-Ê¿ilm (âtravel in search of knowledgeâ),6 a riḥla account where the author records the names of his masters, the places where he was taught and the selected texts he memorised during this education. In addition to its descriptive content, narrating a travel experience implies an organisation of memories and also interpretation of what the traveller felt. This traveller and pilgrim visited many places, meeting a variety of âothersâ and experienced a range of emotions. Therefore, recounting his journey implies an attitude towards oneâs own existence and the construction of the memory of oneself. On the other hand, and in this context, writing on feelings and emotions is related not only to the one who writes, but also to the audience for whom it is written. This binomial establishes the form, contents, aim and projection of Arabic travel writing.
In this chapter, a synthesis of some representative Arabic travel accounts is first presented in order to frame the travel writing of two well-known personalities: AbÅ«-l-Ḥasan Ê¿AlÄ« al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« (b. Baza, Spain, 1412 â d. Béja, Tunis, 1486) and Aḥmad ibn QÄsim al-ḤaÄarÄ« (b. Hornachos, Spain, 1570 â d. Tunis after 1642). Then, a new perspective is introduced about the significance of al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ«âs Riḥla7 and al-ḤaÄarÄ«âs KitÄb NÄá¹£ir al-dÄ«n Ê¿alÄ l-qawm al-kÄfirÄ«n [The
Both texts reveal the mental representation of interrelated circumstances and spaces in a common socioeconomic frame that does not welcome individual lives, but a steady state and society.
Hence, al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« and al-ḤaÄarÄ«âs autobiographical texts are not mere translations of their cultural speech into writing, they are also both testimonies of their growth as individuals based on the places and moments experienced. Although Netton9 argued that âPilgrim paradigm comprises a series of four searches: for the shrine and/or its circumambient religious geography; for knowledge; for recognition and/or power; and for the satisfaction of a basic wanderlust,â we consider that pilgrimage also involves the search for self, as well as the construction of oneâs self, through the experience of the collectivity in different places and in the memory built of such experiences, an aspect to which little attention has been paid.
2 Travel Writing in the Islamic Medieval Context
The study of narratives of journeys first developed as a genre in Western literature. A large number of works have dealt with travel writing, addressing
A first group of Arabic travel accounts is made up of texts which gathered news about places, routes or ways, and people (âothersâ). This set of texts shares the title of KitÄb al-MasÄlik wa-l-mamÄlik [Treatise on Roads and Kingdoms].11 They were written by authors of Persian origins in the era of the Ê¿abbÄsà empire during the ninth and tenth centuries.12 One ninth-century work is that by Ibn ḪurradÄdbih, an official in the caliphâs postal service, who was very interested in compiling all kinds of descriptive details about postal relay points, distances, roads, judicial districts, frontiers, etc. At the end of the ninth century, AbÅ« Zayd al-SÄ«rÄfÄ« compiled his work titled Silsilat al-tawÄriḫ [Chain of Chronicles], in which he gathered valuable details about navigation in the Indian Ocean, India and China. In the second half of the tenth century, the Persian Bozorg collected stories about the Far East.13 From the tenth century is the work by Ibn Faá¸lÄn, protagonist of a mission commissioned by the Caliph al-Muqtadir, which would lead him to travel in 921 from Bagdad to the Volga lands to visit the king of the Bulgars, in order to gather information about the peoples of the area and their customs. In his risÄla, he describes what he calls the tribe of the rÅ«siyyÄ (the Russians), only known, until the twelfth century, through this source. Other similar missions were entrusted to various
On the other hand, pilgrimage to the sanctuary in the city of Mecca (al-ḥaÄÄ) was among the mandatory rites of Islam. On this journey, the Muslim had the opportunity to visit different places and reside temporarily in them. The vicissitudes of these travels were recorded in writing on numerous occasions, particularly among Andalusian authors, which has led to these texts being distinguished from others as a specific genre in Arabic literature. The literary category of the journey, the riḥla, is a non-indigenous genre in Arabic literature. Brockelmann15 classified it in Arabic geographic literature, which came from the Greeks. In Greek literature, texts describing distant countries and their customs, the Periegesis, from which the Periplos derived, are well known. These, in turn, are related to the geographic descriptions of the Earth from Alexandrine and imperial times.16
In his Extraits des principaux géographes arabes du Moyen Ãge, Blachère offered a selection of texts from works by Arab geographers from the Middle Ages and outlined the following chronological and thematic milestones of geographic literature:
Typology of travel writing |
|---|
Ninth-tenth centuries: literary geography appears in the form of compendia for the use of officials and geographic works aimed at the courtly reader. |
Tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries: other interests and the literary development of the Islamic Arab culture exhaust the previous genres, giving rise to: â Accounts by travellers, between the tenth and twelfth centuries. â The genre of al-masÄlik wa-l-mamÄlik [The itineraries and kingdoms] begins to develop. This produces works from a Å¡Ä«âÄ« perspective, of Persian origins and typical of the âabbÄsÄ« Empire, defined in its essence by opposition to the Hellenistic legacy in geography, sciences and Ptolemaic astronomy. â Works popularising geographic knowledge appear, such as those by al-MasÊ¿Å«dÄ« (d. 956) and al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ« (d. 1048). |
From the twelfth century, the genre evolves and information about journeys is collected in: â Gazetteers. â Cosmographies and universal geographies. â Historical-geographic encyclopaedias. â Travellersâ accounts (riḥla). |
Without the need to go back to what some have considered the first known travel account in Arabic literature, contained in the story of âSinbad the Sailorâ (SindibÄd al-BaḥrÄ«) in the Thousand and One Nights,17 we can affirm that, since the ninth century, an Arab-Islamic sphere of works written in Arabic, of varied themes, which collected anecdotes, geographical, mathematical, astronomical, botanical and even ethnographical data, has been documented. The travel story we call riḥla, in other words, the narration of places, people and vicissitudes experienced by the medieval Muslim traveller, has traditionally been classified as one of the genres of medieval Arabic geography.
Arabic sources, such as bio-bibliographies and stories of the journey to Mecca, which were at the same time study and learning trips, contain testimonies of stereotyped Muslim pilgrims, men who start out from some point in Western Islam (al-Andalus-Maghreb) for the holy city of Mecca knowing that they are undertaking a spiritual, intellectual and educational journey. The pilgrimâs itinerary included precise points on the map of the knowledge of the time, a map never drawn except in the plot of the text of the tales of pilgrims. Thus, the obligation to make the pilgrimage to Mecca and to seek knowledge wherever one might find oneself defined the concept of riḥla fÄ« á¹alab al-Ê¿ilm, or journeys in search of knowledge.
Al-Andalus remained, in principle and until the twelfth century, detached from this development of the concept of pilgrimage linked to both spirituality and the search for knowledge. This idea came to al-Andalus in a later period. Ibn Ê¿ArabÄ« of Murcia (Murcia 1165 â Damascus 1240), the âgreatest masterâ (al-Å¡ayj al-akbar) of Islamic mysticism, may have been one of the promotors of the combined concept of pilgrimage and education. He spent part of his life in al-Andalus and the Maghreb and later travelled around the Islamic East spreading his teachings. Ibn Ê¿ArabÄ« spent his life on a spiritual journey. He reproduced two of his journeys in writing and contemplation: the interior and the exterior, in his goal of achieving the unification of the two horizons, that of the individual dimension and that of the collective aspect, the experience of being and the experience of existing.18 In the twelfth century, the strictly literary genre of travel accounts, the riḥla, appeared as a creation of Western Muslims. The origin of the travel narration in prose lies in a journey with the purpose of making the pilgrimage to Mecca. The journey was understood to be cloaked in the
The two reference works in this genre of Arabic travel literature date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and contain the details of the pilgrimages by two figures of Andalusian origin: Ibn Äubayr and Ibn Baá¹á¹Å«á¹a. The former, AbÅ«-l-Ḥusayn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Äubayr al-KinÄnÄ« al-Ä arnÄtÄ« al-BalansÄ«,19 was born in Valencia in 1145 into a family that had been settled in al-Andalus since 740. He was educated in Xà tiva, where his father was a government official, receiving the traditional education for young men of his class, beginning with religious sciences and literature (adab) at the same time. His aptitudes earned him a secretarial post in the service of the governor of Granada, AbÅ« SaÊ¿Ä«d Ê¿UtmÄn b. Ê¿Abd al-Muʾmin. It is said that one day, Ibn Äubayr was forced to drink wine, and out of deep regret, he decided to clear his error by making the journey to the holy places of Islam. This event gave rise to the work that would bring him fame, his riḥla or narration of his travels to Mecca.20
The journey of Ibn Äubayr began in Granada, which he left on the 19th day of the month of Å¡awwÄl in 578 (15 February 1183). After passing through various places, he reached the holy city, where he stayed for nine months. He returned to al-Andalus via Cartagena and from there to Granada in 1185. Ibn Äubayr travelled to the Orient again between 1189â1191 but did not write about the second trip. In 1217, he moved to Alexandria, where he died at the end of that same year.
Ibn Äubayrâs book was the first to be written in this genre and became a model admired and imitated by later authors, like Ibn Äuzayy,21 the compiler of the riḥla of Ibn Baá¹á¹Å«á¹a. The riḥla by Ibn Äubayr is considered to be a magnificent source that informs and illustrates, among other things, the history of the Crusades, the conditions of navigation in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages, the political and social state of the regions he passed through, etc. In general, the bookâs style is lively, and the narrative passages are written in an almost journalistic manner. When the author describes a region or city, or the feelings he experiences, the account becomes extremely precise and rich, making use of rhymed prose. The book became known in Europe in the mid nineteenth century, although the first translation into a European language did not appear until 1906, when Celestino Schiaparelli translated it into Italian.
Rachel Arié22 has pointed out that the riḥla by Muḥammad al-Ê¿AbdarÄ« inaugurated a new form of travel narrative that is related to the journeys by the Maliki jurist, Ibn RuÅ¡ayd, also in the thirteenth century, although some years later. Al-Ê¿AbdarÄ« wrote his riḥla at the end of the century. He likely lived in Marrakech, but the dates of his birth and death are unknown. His journey began in December 1289 and his account contains abundant details about Maghreb Sufi saints and Muslim scholars. Another author of a riḥla is Ibn RuÅ¡ayd. Born in Ceuta in 1259, he began his journey of pilgrimage and learning in 1284. He joined Ibn al-Ḥakim of Ronda, future vizier in the Nasrid court of Granada, in Almeria. He was the imÄm and ḫaá¹Ä«b in the great mosque in that city and later in the old mosque in Marrakech. He died in 1321. His riḥla compiles the names and titles of outstanding works from the cultural environment of his time. Arié mentions the mannered style of both stories with a profusion of quotes from verses recited by their interlocutors. On the other hand, the cities are described in a literary way without any interest being shown in describing them realistically.23
Another well-known riḥla is TaÄ al-mafriq fÄ« taḥliyat Ê¿ulamÄʾ al-maÅ¡riq24 by the judge (qÄá¸Ä«) ḪalÄ«d b. Ê¿IsÄ al-BalawÄ« (d. 1364), who was born in Cantoria (Almeria) into a family of lawyers with Yemeni ancestors. Educated in Granada, he was qÄá¸Ä« in Cantoria and later in Purchena.25 He began his journey to Mecca in 1335, returning to al-Andalus in 1340 and finishing his account of his travels in 1366. Al-BalawÄ«âs riḥla was written in rhymed prose and includes poems by the author. It is a poetical panorama of the places he visited and the people he met.
Ibn Baá¹á¹Å«á¹a26 is well known for his account of his journey to Mecca. Starting from his riḥla, his biography can be reconstructed to a point, although we always find ourselves between what the author wanted, and did not want, to explain. Born in Tangier in 1304, he began his riḥla on the 2nd of raÄab in
The Granadan polygraph, Ibn al-Ḫaá¹Ä«b27 wrote two pieces resulting from political travels. These are the Ḫaá¹rat al-á¹ayf fÄ« riḥlat al-Å¡itÄâ wa-l-á¹£ayf and the NufÄá¸at al-ÄirÄb fÄ« Ê¿ulÄlat al-iÄ¡tirÄb. Ḫaá¹rat al-á¹ayf is a brief tract written in rhymed prose that contains Ibn al-Ḫaá¹Ä«bâs experiences on the journey he undertook with Sultan YÅ«suf I to inspect the eastern frontiers of the kingdom in 1347. The work is a unique testament of the political, social and military history of Nasrid Granada in the fourteenth century.28 For its part, the NufÄá¸at includes information about the journey by Ibn al-Ḫaá¹Ä«b to Fez in 1359, as well as his wanderings in the Maghreb Atlas after settling in Salé, when the official retinue had chosen to set its residence in the Marinid court in Fez. These two works conserve a collection of news and events of a historical nature that their narrator, one of the most relevant figures of the fourteenth century in al-Andalus, compiled following his travels along the Nasrid frontier and in the Maghreb. The documentary nature of these works is evident and constitutes an example of a specific type of Arabic travel writing.
Some examples of travel literature written by Maghrebis come from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They were Maghrebis, but we should remember that this group includes Andalusians living in the Maghreb as a result of the progressive disappearance of the Islamic state of al-Andalus. To this it can be added that, despite the small number of travel books from this time (at least as far as we know today), stylistically they are heterogeneous and fluctuate between detailed descriptions of the surroundings and the bare recording of news about people and places. The latter is the case of the riḥla by al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ«, a work that departs from the literary model to adhere to the essence and spirit of the riḥla, a study trip for intellectual and religious learning, creating an atmosphere of social cohesion around knowledge. In this sense, a basic distinction should be made between travel books of a literary nature and
The riḥla by al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« Ê¿AlÄ« b. Muḥammad al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« al-Baá¹£tÄ« al-Garnaá¹Ä«, is from the fifteenth century. He was born in Baza in 1412 and died in Tunis in 1486 and is best known for his contributions as a mathematician.29 The account of his journey, undertaken around 1439, contains the list of teachers and ulamas who participated in his education during his time in various places in the Arabic-Islamic sphere. Al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ«âs contemporary, Ibn al-á¹¢abbÄḥ, was born in Almeria and died after 1490.30 He is considered to be the last classical traveller (raḥḥÄl). His riḥla is titled MinÅ¡Äb al-aḫbÄr wa tadkirat al-ahyÄr [Origin of the events, Memory of the Virtuous]. Franco Sánchez (1995) highlights the great similarities between the praise dedicated to the Kingdom of Granada by Ibn al-á¹¢abbÄḥ and that which appears in the Ḫaá¹rat al-á¹ayf by Ibn al- Ḫaá¹Ä«b. He also highlights the similarities between the descriptions of the Kingdom of Granada in the MinÅ¡Äb al-aḫbÄr and those in MiÊ¿yÄr al-iḫtiyÄr fÄ« dikr al-maÊ¿Ähid wa-l-diyÄr, also by Ibn al-Ḫaá¹Ä«b, the former seeming to summarise the latter. It is no surprise that the work of this Granadan polygraph served as a model for other authors.
From the sixteenth century, there are the books of voyages by Aḥmad b. QÄsim al-ḤaÄarÄ«, which is dealt with below, and Ê¿AlÄ« b. Muḥammad al-TamarÅ«tÄ«, Al-nafḥat al-miskiyya fÄ« l-sifÄra al-á¹urkiyya (The Musk scent: The Turkish trip).31 Written in 1591, a few years before his death in 1595, Al-nafḥat al-miskiyya contains the account of a journey that, for a little over two years, the author undertook as the ambassador of Aḥmad al-Manṣūr al-DahabÄ« before the Ottoman caliph MurÄd iii in the city of Constantinople. This book is especially useful for its details about the diplomatic relations between the Maghreb and the Turkish-Ottoman Empire. The title itself (The Musk scent: The Turkish trip) would seem to suggest, a priori, a narrative posture related to sensuality and exoticism. However, this type of title with a bi-membered and rhymed structure is very frequent in Arab-language written production32 and
3 The Serenity of Being Part of a Collectivity: The Riḥla by al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ«
The mathematician of Granadan origin, AbÅ«-l-Ḥasan Ê¿AlÄ« b. Muḥammad Ê¿AlÄ« al-Basá¹Ä« al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« was born in Baza, in the province of Granada, in 815/1412. He spent fifteen years travelling through the main towns on the Maghreb coast and the Orient until reaching Mecca. His Riḥla is traditionally part of the genre of journeys of pilgrimage in search of knowledge (riḥla fÄ« á¹alab al-Ê¿ilm), although it lacks the stylistic characteristics we find in travel accounts like those by Ibn Äubayr or Ibn Baá¹á¹Å«á¹a.
The Riḥla by al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« is presented to us as an impeccable example of objective writing in which the mathematician gives an orderly account of the teachers from whom he learned, the titles of the fundamental texts for classical Islamic learning, his level of knowledge of these and the city where he resided when he received these teachings. The work encapsulates the well-known experience of learning in various places in the Arabic-Islamic realm on a real intellectual journey to and from Mecca. Such objectivity transcends the authorâs choice about how to represent his intellectual universe as part of a set of knowledge that constituted the thought of his time and its context. However, it is also a means of reaching a higher personal level by virtue of learning and understanding. Thus, the phenomenon of the riḥla supposes a physical and, at the same time, intellectual journey, a metaphor for the path towards the growth of the individual, which fits perfectly into a network of teachers and knowledge.
In his hometown, al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« followed the teachings of Ê¿AlÄ« b. MÅ«sà on law, Qurâanic exegesis, adab and the calculation of inheritances. From Baza, he moved to Granada where he lived part of his life. In the Nasrid capital, he studied under various teachers, including Ibn FutÅ«h, who taught him philosophy, science and philology, and al-Saraqusá¹Ä«, with whom he would mainly study fiqh. Al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« stood out in his time for his pious character, for being a prolific author and above all for being an expert in inheritance law (Ê¿ilm al-farÄʾiá¸). His higher education lasted fifteen years in different parts of the Maghreb until he reached Mecca. There he ended the outward stage of his study trip after ten years. From Mecca, he undertook the return journey mainly by sea, sailing down the Nile and along the Mediterranean, until he reached Almeria. After five years, he finished his journey in this Andalusian city in 851/1447.
Thus, as we have seen, executing the riḥla, which includes the ḥaÄÄ, means travelling within oneself and outside oneself. The external, that network of teachers and fundamental texts for traditional Islamic knowledge (grammar, law, mathematics â¦), solidifies the individual who thus perfects two complementary and indissoluble aspects in the conformation of the model of pious Muslim: knowledge and spirituality.
4
Aḥmad b. QÄsim ibn Aḥmad ibn al-faqÄ«h QÄsim ibn al-Å¡ayḫ al-ḤaÄarÄ« al-AndalusÄ«, with the Moorish name of Ehmed ben Caçim Bejarano, and the Christian name of Diego Bejarano, was born in Hornachos, in south-western Spain, around 1570.34 According to his own account, a Moorish physician taught him to read and write Arabic, knowing Arabic as a spoken language.35 In 1590, al-ḤaÄarÄ« served the Archbishop of Granada, Pedro de Castro y Quiñones, founder of Sacromonte Abbey, who was immersed in the episode of the Lead Books of Sacromonte.36 Regarding his works,37 Jaime Oliver AsÃn (1905â1980) was the first to study the Aljamiado-Moorish manuscript D 565 in the University Library of Bologna, where al-ḤaÄarÄ«âs writings in Spanish are kept. Aḥmad al-ḤaÄarÄ« wrote his Letter to the Moors of Constantinople in Arabic in Marrakech in 1612. His translation into Spanish is preserved in the
In the KitÄb NÄá¹£ir al-dÄ«n, al-ḤaÄarÄ« recounts his life during his travels to Marrakech, France and the Netherlands. In 1598, he embarked from Puerto de Santa MarÃa (Cádiz) bound for the port of Mazagán (a Portuguese possession, nowadays El-Yadida). From there, he journeyed to the court of Muley Aḥmad al-Manṣūr in Marrakech, where he arrived in July of the same year. He stayed there for several years working as a secretary and translator of diplomatic documents and scholarly texts on various topics. He was secretary and interpreter to Muley ZaydÄn from 1608. In 1611, he travelled to France on a diplomatic mission tasked with defending the interests of the Moorish refugees there. He then embarked on Le Havre bound for the United Provinces of the Netherlands, territories with which Morocco maintained good diplomatic and trade relations. He stayed in Amsterdam between June and September 1613, maintaining contacts with scholars like Golius and Erpenius as well as representatives of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish community. Back in Marrakech, he continued in his post as secretary and interpreter during the reigns of Ê¿Abd al-MÄlik
One of the blessings the Exalted God bestowed upon me was that He made me a Muslim in the land of the infidels, ever since I was aware of myself, through my blessed parents â may the Exalted God have mercy upon themâand their guidance. God had created in my heart a longing to leave the lands of al-Andalus in order to emigrate to the Exalted God and His messenger and to enter the land of the Muslims.40
With his statement, al-ḤaÄarÄ« places himself on the âright side,â the good place to stay being Muslim, and not an infidel, i.e. in DÄr al-islÄm although his birthplace was in âthe land of the infidelâ (DÄr al-kufr) or in âthe land of the warâ (DÄr al- ḥÄrb), because the land of peace or Islam exists (i.e. DÄr al-islÄm). Consciously recognising his place as part of a collective was essential for al-ḤaÄarÄ« in order to construct his lifeâs purpose and to feel safe as part of something bigger than his own existence.
We arrived in France, where I had many discussions with their learned priests, monks, and judges concerning the various existing religious texts. For this purpose, I had to read the Gospel they possess nowadays and other of their books, in order to find materials to refute them and to nullify their arguments. God made me victorious over them numerous times.43
There are so many emotional passages in al-ḤaÄarÄ«âs KitÄb NÄá¹£ir al-dÄ«n that it would be excessive to reproduce them here in whole. The title of his self-journey narrative is expressive enough: Riḥlat al-Å ihÄb ilÄ liqÄʾ al-aḥbÄb [The journey of al-Å ihÄb44 towards the Meeting with the Loved Ones], meaning the mandatory migration of the author (as a Muslim) from DÄr al-kufr to DÄr al-islÄm and his reencounter with the Muslim community.
5 Conclusions
The Riḥla by al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« is a classic model of âjourney in search of knowledgeâ (riḥla fÄ« á¹alab al-Ê¿ilm) which, without writing about the intimate, reveals an unexpected spiritual depth. A careful and contextualised reading of al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ«âs text reveals that it is much more significant than a simple enumeration of names of teachers and essential texts for the knowledge of the time. It verifies the way the phenomenon of the riḥla was a central element of fifteenth-century western Islamic societies. More than a journey, it was a kind of viaticum that led the individual to understand that their self transcended in function of the effort and acceptance of their belonging to a group, a circumstance that gave them the peace of identity and the confidence of belonging
This study is part of the research project Cultural and Religious Identity in Sufism in Morocco and Senegal (9th-20th Centuries): Hagiographies, Gender Issues, and Symbolism (pid2023-151079ob-100), funded by the Ministry of Science, Innovations, and Universities, led by Rachid El Hour Amro (Universidad de Salamanca).The system of transliteration used in this chapter is the following: Ê¿ â b â t â ṯ â ǧ â ḥ â ḫ â d â d â r -z â s â Å¡ â á¹£ â Ḡâ á¹ â Ạâ Ê¿ â Ä¡ â f â q â k â l â m â n â h â w â y.
Jeff E. Malpas, Place and Experience: A Philosophical Topography (Cambridge, Eng. 1999), 176.
Francisco Franco-Sánchez, âal-MasÄlik wa-l-MamÄlik: Precisiones acerca del tÃtulo de estas obras de la literatura geográfica árabe medieval y conclusiones acerca de su origen y estructura,â Philologia Hispalensis 31/2 (2017), 37â66,
Ian Netton, âRiḥla,â in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, eds. Peri Bearman, Thierry Bianquis, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Emeri van Donzel, Wolfhart Heinrichs, 8 vols. (Leiden, 1995), 8:528; Daniel Newman, âArabic Travel Writing,â in The Cambridge History of Travel Writing, eds. Nandini Das, Tim Youngs (Cambridge, Eng. 2019), <
Dwight F. Reynolds, Interpreting the Self. Autobiography in the Arabic Literary Tradition (Berkeley, 2001), <
Maria Luisa Ãvila, âThe search for knowledge: Andalusi Scholars and their Travels to the Islamic East,â Medieval Prosopography 23 (2002), 125â39.
Al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ«, TamhÄ«d al-á¹Älib wa muntahà al-rÄÄ¡ib ilà aÊ¿là al-manÄzil wa-l-manÄqib [Preparation of the disciple and perfect complement for the interested party on the most outstanding places and ways], ed. Muḥammad AbÅ« al-AÄfÄn (Tunis, 1978).
KitÄb NÄá¹£ir al-dÄ«n Ê¿alÄ l-qawm al-kÄfirÄ«n wa-huwa al-sayf al-aÅ¡har Ê¿alÄ kull man kafar [The defender of religion against unbelievers: The mightiest sword against all who do not believe], Autobiography of al-ḤaÄarÄ«. It is considered that the KitÄb NÄá¹£ir al-dÄ«n is a summarised version of the Riḥlat al-Å ihÄb ilÄ liqÄâ al-aḥbÄb [Fleeting Journey to the Beloved = Å ihÄbâs Autobiography dedicated to his loved ones] by al-ḤaÄarÄ« himself, that is thought to be lost. Maravillas Aguiar Aguilar, Kevin RodrÃguez Wittmann, âAl-Äuzur al-ḫÄlidÄt al-musammÄt al-ʾÄn bi-qanÄriya (Las Islas eternas conocidas ahora como Qanariya): La mención a Canarias de Aḥmad ibn QÄsim al-ḤaÄarÄ« (Hornachos, ca. 1570-Túnez, después de 1642),â Anuario de Estudios Atlánticos 68 (2022), 1â15 <
Ian Richard Netton, âArabia and the Pilgrim Paradigm of Ibn Baá¹á¹Å«á¹a: A Braudelian Approach,â in Arabia and the Gulf: From Traditional Society to Modern States, ed. Ian Netton (London, 1986), pp. 29â42; Ian Richard Netton, âBasic Structures and Signs of Alienation in the âRiḥlaâ of Ibn Jubayr,â Journal of Arabic Literature 22/1 (1991), 21â37.
François Moureau, âDescubrimientos y redescubrimientos: estado actual de los estudios sobre la literatura de viajes,â in Escrituras y reescrituras del viaje: miradas plurales a través del tiempo y de las culturas, eds. Berta Pico Graña, Clara Curell, MarÃa Cristina González de Uriarte Marrón, José Manuel Oliver Frade (Bern, 2007), 11â20; Maravillas Aguiar Aguilar, âEl relato de viajes (riḥla) en la literatura árabe,â in Escrituras y reescrituras del viaje: miradas plurales a través del tiempo y de las culturas, eds. Berta Pico Graña, Clara Curell, MarÃa Cristina González de Uriarte Marrón, José Manuel Oliver Frade (Bern, 2007), pp.21â28.
Franco-Sánchez, âMasÄlik wa-l-MamÄlik,â 37â66.
Franco-Sánchez, âMasÄlik wa-l-MamÄlik. Construyendo,â 111â70.
Régis Blachère, Ãxtraits des principaux géographes arabes du Moyen Ãge (Paris, 1932), p. 94.
VladÃmir Minorsky, AbÅ«-Dulaf MisÊ¿ar ibn Muhalhilâs Travels in Iran (Cairo, 1955) ; Richard W. Bulliet, âAbÅ« Dolaf al-YanbÅ«Ê¿Ä«,â in Encyclopaedia Iranica, eds. Ehsan Yarshater, IḥsÄn YÄrÅ¡Ätir, 15 vols. (New York, 1983) 1/ fasc.3: 271â72; an updated version is available online at <
Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Leiden, 1943).
Ignacio RodrÃguez Alfageme, Literatura cientÃfica griega (Madrid, 2004), pp.79â80.
Blachère, Extraits des principaux géographes, p. 93.
Alfonso Carmona, Los dos horizontes: escritos sobre Ibn Arabà (Murcia, 1992).
Charles Pellat, âIbn Djubayr,â in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, eds. Charles Pellat, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Emeri van Donzel, Bill Lewis, 12 vols. (Leiden, 1986), 3:755.
Netton, âBasic Structures.â
André Miquel, âIbn Djubayr,â in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, eds. Charles Pellat, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Emeri van Donzel, Bill Lewis, 12 vols. (Leiden, 1986), 3:756.
Rachel Arié, âViajeros de occidente a oriente,â in Historia y cultura de la Granada nazarÃ, ed. Rachel Arié (Granada, 2004), pp. 142â43.
Arié, âViajeros de occidente,â p. 143.
ḪalÄ«d b. Ê¿IsÄ al-BalawÄ«, TaÄ al-mafriq fÄ« taḥliyat Ê¿ulamÄʾ al-maÅ¡riq, ed. Ḥasan al-SÄʾiḥ (Rabat, without date).
Arié, âViajeros de occidente,â pp. 144â7.
André Miquel, âIbn Baá¹á¹Å«á¹a,â in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, eds. Charles Pellat, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Emeri van Donzel, Bill Lewis, 12 vols. (Leiden, 1986), 3:735â6.
Jacinto Bosch Vilá, âIbn al-Ḫaá¹Ä«b,â The Encyclopaedia of Islam, eds. Charles Pellat, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Emeri van Donzel, Bill Lewis, 12 vols. (Leiden, 1960â2005), 3:860; Celia Del Moral, Francisco Velázquez Basanta, Ibn al-Jatib y su tiempo (Granada, 2012).
Emilio Molina, Ibn al-Jatib (Granada, 2001), p. 190.
Manuela MarÃn, âThe making of a mathematician: al-Qalaá¹£ÄdÄ« (d.891/1486) and his Riḥla,â Suhayl 4 (2004), 295â310.
Francisco Franco-Sánchez, âEl reino nazarà de Granada según un viajero mudéjar almeriense: Ibn al-á¹¢abbÄḫ (m. después 895/1490),â Sharq al-Andalus. Estudios Mudéjares y Moriscos 13 (1995), 203â24.
Henry de La Croix comte de Castries, Rélation dâune ambassade marocaine en Turquie (1589â1591) (Paris, 1929).
George Michael Wickens, âNotional significance in conventional Arabic âbookâ titles: some unregarded potentialities,â in The Islamic world from Classical to Modern times: essays in honor of Bernard Lewis, eds. Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Charles Issawi, Roger Savory, A. L. Udovitch (Princeton, 1989), pp. 369â88; Alfonso Carmona, âSobre la estructura convencional del tÃtulo en los libros árabes,â Al-Qaná¹ara 21/1 (2000), 85â95. In this type of title, the rhyme divides it into two parts or syntagms each with a full sense. The first part or syntagm is the brief title by which reference is made to the work and the second is a subtitle where the theme of the work is expressed. The first part tends to be an aesthetic syntagm, such as this title of the work by Ê¿AlÄ« b. Muḥammad al-TamarÅ«tÄ«: Al-nafḥat al-miskiyya [The Musk scent].
Jacques Le Goff, History and Memory (New York, 1992); Paul Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting (Chicago, 2004).
Leonard P. Harvey, âThe Morisco who was Muley Zaidanâs Spanish interpreter: Ahmad bnu Qasim ibn al-faqih Qasim al-shaikh al-Hajari al-Andalusi, alias Ehmed ben Caçim Bejarano hijo de Ehmed hijo de alfaquà Caçim hijo del saih al-Hhachari Andaluz,â Miscelánea de Estudios Ãrabes y Hebraicos 8/1 (1959), 67â97; Gerard Albert Wiegers, âA life between Europe and the Magrib. The writings and travels of Ahmad b. Qasim ibn Ahmad ibn al-faqih Qasim ibn al-shaykh al-Hajari al-Andalusi (born c.977/1569â70),â in The Middle East and Europe: Encounters and Exchanges [Orientations, 1], eds. Geert Jan van Gelder, Ed de Moor (Amsterdam, 1993), pp.87â118; Jaime Oliver AsÃn, âNoticias de Bejarano en Granada;â âAḥmad al-HaÅ·arÄ« Bejarano. Apuntes biográficos de un morisco notable residente en Marruecos,â in Jaime Oliver AsÃn. Conferencias y apuntes inéditos, ed. Dolores Oliver (Madrid, 1996), pp. 127â50; 151â64; Luis Fernando Bernabé Pons, âAḥmad al-ḤaÅ·arÄ«,â in Diccionario Biográfico electrónico de la Real Academia de la Historia (Madrid, 2018), <
Mercedes GarcÃa Arenal, Fernando RodrÃguez Mediano, Rachid El Hour Amro, eds., Cartas marruecas: documentos de Marruecos en archivos españoles (siglos xviâxvii) (Madrid, 2002), pp. 40â41; Maravillas Aguiar Aguilar, âLos moriscos en la encrucijada polÃtica y cientÃfica de la Europa moderna: la pervivencia de una minorÃa,â in La cuestión morisca y el derecho, eds. Kaoutar El Amri, Rahma Hadri, Mohammed Najib Lourbaris (Rabat, 2018), pp. 125â31.
Mercedes GarcÃa Arenal, Fernando RodrÃguez Mediano, Un oriente español. Los moriscos y el Sacromonte en tiempos de Contrarreforma (Madrid, 2010); Mercedes GarcÃa Arenal, Fernando RodrÃguez Mediano, âDiego Bejarano al-ḤajarÄ« and the Morisco Understanding of the Lead Books,â in The Orient in Spain. Converted Muslims, the Forged Lead Books of Granada, and the Rise of Orientalism, eds. Mercedes GarcÃa Arenal, Fernando RodrÃguez Mediano, trans. Consuelo López Morillas (Leiden, 2013), pp. 139â53.
Aguiar Aguilar, RodrÃguez Wittmann, âAl-Äuzur.â
Ê¿AlÄ« WanÄ«s, TarÄamat al-Å¡ayḫ al-Ê¿alÄmat Ê¿AlÄ« b. Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbadÄ«n Muḥammad b. AbÄ« Muḥammad Zayn al-DÄ«n Ê¿Abd al-Raḥman b. Ê¿AlÄ« AbÅ« al-IrÅ¡Äd NÅ«r al-DÄ«n al-UÄhÅ«rÄ« al-MÄlikÄ« (T. 1066 H) [Biography of the distinguished master Ê¿AlÄ« b. Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbadÄ«n Muḥammad b. AbÄ« Muḥammad Zayn al-DÄ«n Ê¿Abd al-Raḥman b. Ê¿AlÄ« AbÅ« al-IrÅ¡Äd NÅ«r al-DÄ«n al-UÄhÅ«rÄ« al-MÄlikÄ« (d. 1066 = 1656)] (2016), <
Juan Penella, âLiterature morisque en espagnol en Tunise,â in Ãtudes sur les moriscos andalous en Tunisie, eds. Mikel de Epalza, Ramón Petit (Madrid-Túnez, 1973), pp.187â98; Juan Penella, Los moriscos españoles emigrados al Norte de Ãfrica después de la expulsión de 1609 (Ph.D. Dissertation, Universitat de Barcelona, 1971), p. 195.
Al-ḤaÄarÄ«, KitÄb NÄá¹£ir al-dÄ«n, trans. Pieter Sjoerd van Koningsveld, Qasim al-Samarrai, Gerard Albert Wiegers (Madrid, 2015), p.76 (Arabic text: p. 7â8).
Al-ḤaÄarÄ« was also known by the nickname al-AfÅ«qÄy, i.e. the âattorneyâ (from the Spanish âabogadoâ).
See: Al-ḤaÄarÄ«, KitÄb NÄá¹£ir al-dÄ«n, p. 77, n. 5.
Al-ḤaÄarÄ«, KitÄb NÄá¹£ir al-dÄ«n, p. 77 (Arabic text: pp. 9â10).
Al-Å ihÄb is the surname (âlaqabâ) of Aḥmad ibn QÄsim al-ḤaÄarÄ«.