1 Introduction
I know that they are complaining at the court that the Republic has shown too much snobbery and had issues concerning the arrangement to make for the Officers and Companies it has in our service.1
These few lines about Geneva, which a captain of the Micheli du Crest family wrote down, in a 1763 memorandum, attributed to a âlord even greater by his birth than by the military rank that he holdsâ,2 illustrate quite clearly the difficult relationship that the city of Geneva had with Versailles as regards military recruitment for the French service.
Research on the various foreign services of the Swiss confederation has never focused specifically on the Genevan experience up to now. Geneva was not considered a particularly flourishing market for mercenaries. Perhaps on account of its small territory and the many alternative opportunities for employment in its nascent industry? As an allied â and Protestant â territory of the Confederation, Geneva did not benefit from the same situation as its neighbours either. When, for example, the Treaty of Vervins was concluded in 1598, thus bringing the war between Spain and France to an end, unlike the confederated cantons, Geneva was deliberately absent from the treaty. It would only be added retroactively in 1603, after the failure of a famous Savoyard invasion
The very lucrative pension system, which was extensively used by France to secure what it hoped would be the exclusive service of Swiss troops, would never represent a revenue source for Genevan families comparable to that obtained by families like the Zurlauben of Zug or the Reding of Schwyz.4 In fact, the Republic of Geneva did not really recognise any official regiments â régiments avoués or capitulés â until 1783.5 Nonetheless, this did not in any way prevent the city from participating in the various foreign services, albeit often with fewer troops. And, like the other cantons of the confederation, it would not fail to make this a factor in its foreign relations, as well as an opportunity for professional migration for its elites.6 Several Genevan families, such as the Buissons or the Grenus, would thus raise free companies: notably, for the French service. These free companies (compagnies franches) were distinguished from the compagnies capitulées or avouées, which were officially recognised (avouées) by the authorities per the terms of an agreement or capitulation. At the same time, some Genevan families, such as the Pictet, were going to send several generations of their sons to serve in the Swiss regiments: in particular, in the regiments of those cantons with which Geneva had treaties of combourgeoisie (co-citizenship) (Berne and Fribourg in 1477 and then Zurich in 1584). The functions and command positions that these officers may have held thus did not imply any presence of troops from Geneva itself.
For a significant number of residents, and notably those from the French Protestant exile community, the military profession would also represent a way of facilitating acquisition of Genevan citizenship.7 It should be recalled that Geneva was far from being self-sufficient in terms of food â especially wheat â and hence it was important for it to have a good food supply and advantageous trade conditions. The service of Genevan troops and officers would thus be
Herbert Lüthy8 showed Genevaâs role as a hub of communication, as well as of economic and diplomatic exchange, but also a crossroads of population movements. In addition, the presence of a permanent representative or résident of France also shows Genevaâs importance for the French crown.
The fortunate location of Geneva in the middle of three states, forming an outcrop of Switzerland and a large area of communication between Italy and Germany, which gives rise, especially in times of war, to a constant passage of prowlers and deserters, and in times of peace of workers of all kinds who are looking for employment and who enlist because they do not find any.9
He cited, in particular, the example of a war in 1742, when Savoy managed to recruit more than 3,000 men in the city,10 which, according to the 1710 census, had around 20,000 inhabitants!11 So, the city of Geneva had the capacity to provide troops. Which is not to say that it approved of it â far from it. Let us recall that the armed forces had very bad press in the civil society of the time. The soldiers had bad morals, they were violent and blasphemous, and they were libertines. For civil society, they were âthe dregs of the population.â12 In Geneva specifically, the authorities issued a number of strict ordinances for regulating the soldiersâ daily lives. Thus, in 1603, they forbade all violence,
How and why then was this recruitment of companies organised, whether free companies or not? Did the Genevan families have an interest in getting involved in military entrepreneurship, particularly before 1783? This subject, which so far has been hardly addressed apart from a few chapters in family histories, will be discussed here drawing mainly on the cityâs archival resources.
2 The City of Genevaâs Attitude to Recruitment
As shown in the publications of Michel Porret16 and Marco Cicchini17 on conscription and the organisation of the cityâs garrison, the establishment of a system of military recruitment in Geneva was an undertaking that appeared unpopular, to say the least, during the Ancien Régime. Moreover, even if recruitment among the cityâs people was, in general, absolutely forbidden, it continued, nonetheless, to take place illegally. Beginning in 1666, however, six free companies were raised in Geneva by families that were mostly well known:
As we will see further on, the families that got involved in military entrepreneurship did so under sometimes perilous conditions. The business was very expensive, and support from local authorities was sporadic at best. Moreover, it is important not to neglect the denominational aspect, which, depending on the families and officers, was far from being a secondary matter. It is true that the Swiss and their allies enjoyed freedom of worship and the promise that they would not be deployed against other members of the Protestant faith, but, nonetheless, the influence of Calvinist thought on the cityâs morals should never be forgotten.21
A fairly well-documented example of Genevan military entrepreneurship is the action undertaken by François Gallatin during the 1734 levy. As soon as an impending levy of troops to support the Swiss regiments was announced, Gallatin wrote to the Duke of Maine to propose his services for one of these companies. The future captain seemed very determined to see his initiative through to successful completion. If he expressed some concerns that his potential unit might then be rapidly dismissed, even the cursory response of the Duke did not discourage him from giving it a try: âNothing ventured, nothing gainedâ.22 Nonetheless, his fears seemed to be well-founded, to say the least, since this scenario had already come to pass several times and it is easy to imagine how difficult it would have been to assume the colossal financial loss that this could represent for a family. Companies and command of them
This agreement, of which I will surely not multiply the copies, should be done by you and me, and not with anyone else, not even with Lord Michely, so indicate to me exactly, supposing you are determined to make this acquisition, how far you can go.27
François Gallatin died in service in 1745. Hence, the question arose of who would take over possession and command of his company, and all the more so as his son and heir Jean Gallatin was still far too young to lay claim to a commanderâs position. In the days to follow, numerous letters were addressed to his widow. His two nephews, a captain and a lieutenant in the service of France and hence well positioned to obtain a commanderâs post, were among the first to pay their respects and to recall that François Gallatin had been âan uncle whom I adored, and who deserved this, an uncle who never ceased for a moment to lavish me with his kindness, to overwhelm me with his good deeds, and to prove to me on every occasion that he regarded me not so much like his nephew as like his own sonâ.31
A few days later, Gallatinâs widow also received a letter from Monsieur de la Courauchantre, the late captainâs superior in his regiment. After expressing his
Finally, it is interesting to follow the family correspondence, in order to note the importance of Madame Gallatinâs involvement in the family military business. Apart from letters in which she describes her husbandâs career and past activities in great detail to her sons, she did not fail to describe the financial details of the business at length as well, including the substantial costs it entailed. Moreover, she is also the author of a substantial correspondence addressed to the higher-ranking officers whom François Gallatin knew, which she started as soon as their son was old enough to join the French service. The undertaking would be crowned by success, and the familyâs military activity would thus be secured for another generation, to Madame Gallatinâs great satisfaction.34
It is important to underscore that these levies and activities similar to that of François Gallatin on behalf of the King of France were made more arduous at the time by the city of Genevaâs long-standing ban on recruitment within its walls. As was the case for other Swiss cities, like Basel for example, enlistment could be viewed as equivalent to a potential loss of skilled labour, a chaotic
Choiseulâs reforms would represent a very significant challenge for the city. He wanted, notably, to retain in the service only companies of cities and cantons allowing recruitment of troops on their territory. In the 1760s, Geneva, which still forbade it, was thus specifically targeted by this reform. The news prompted the Genevan military entrepreneurs and officers to petition the Small Council, the cityâs executive organ. For Geneva not to align itself with these measures would have meant, in effect, the dissolution of its companies and a major reduction in the number of officers who were able advantageously to serve the French crown. On 13 August 1763, a group of eighteen officers â including lords Turrettini, Pictet, Lullin, Gallatin, Perdriau, Lullin de Chateauvieux, Mallet, Micheli, and Micheli du Crest â co-signed a memorandum in which they set out their arguments in favour of local recruitment and hence continued foreign service on behalf of the King of France. It is worth reproducing some of their arguments here.
We need to decide, I say, if the individuals who did these levies with the consent of the lords, who transferred them to their descendants, to their families as a patrimony, if the citizens who, putting their faith in this usage have served and are serving for a long time with a view to obtaining these companies, if all the citizens finally who have a right to these troops should be deprived of them, and the government take this position at the moment when the service is becoming better paid, when a company will be worth 6000 livres per year, when the salary of a subaltern is increasing in such a way that he can live honourably on his pay and when finally the formation of the regiment of the Swiss Guards that is not assigned to any canton gives all the officers serving in the different Swiss regiments the chance to obtain companies in this corps.35
The families that signed the memorandum could hope for a better income from this reform, whether in the form of a pension for themselves or for their subordinates â whose ranks not infrequently included members of their own families, like the Pictets, who would sometimes be four or even five in the same regiment. Apart from this, the point of the Swiss Guards regiment is also discussed. This prestigious regiment was known both for its particularly rigorous and selective recruitment and for its privileges and high pay.36 And, contrary, for example, to the Principality of Neuchâtel, which had had two companies reserved for it in the regiment since 1657, Geneva had none.37 Captain Micheli du Crest specifically addresses this issue in another letter: âthe effect of the recognition [of the company] should also remove all barriers to our advancement either in the corps of the nation or that of the Swiss Guardsâ.38 This argument was far from being negligible: neither for the officers directly involved nor for their families. Families that, as we know, had a significant presence in the cityâs various councils. Captain François Gallatin, moreover, would spend some time
Regarding the recruitment of people from the city and its vicinity as an argument for refusing Choiseulâs reform, the officers point out âthat the harm caused by Genevans no longer having officers and Companies in France will be far greater; because there will not be one less Genevan soldier going into the service, the French border will always be within reach for lodging recruitersâ.39
But maintaining this involvement in the French service was also supposed to help to preserve the advantages of merchants and entrepreneurs. This argument is developed at length and led the cityâs councils to wonder about the place Geneva would have in future renewals of the alliance if the city no longer joined the Swiss confederation in its military commitments.40 There is also a long discussion of the fact that if Geneva abstains or refuses Choiseulâs terms, it would be going it alone, which, according to the signatories, would jeopardise its continued independence.
Genevans wishing to serve will have the pleasure of being commanded by their compatriots, and their relatives will be able to come to an understanding with their captains much more easily than if they were from another Canton.42
3 What Are the Motives for Enlisting in the French Service as an Officer?
The Genevan officers enlisting in the service on behalf of the French crown at least for a time were not as uncommon as one might think. Even if we leave aside the periods of the regiments bearing the names of the city (namely that of Ami Buisson from 1715 to 1721 and that of the Marquis Lullin de Châteauvieux from 1783 to the Revolution), certain families from Geneva were going to be hardly less diligent about serving in subordinate positions than families from other cantons. A telling example, although not one of the best known from a military point of view, is that of the Pictet family.
A family of French origin from Haute-Savoie, the Pictet family obtained citizenship of Geneva in 1474. A century later, it was a firmly established part of the cityâs political landscape, furnishing no less than twelve syndics during the old Republic.43 In his discussion of the interconnections among the cityâs councils, Herbert Lüthy cites the Pictet family, among others, as an example of one of the best-established families in the different councils, alongside the Lullins, Trembleys, Buissons, and the Gallatins as well. According to his figures, in 1738, 75 close relatives were members of the Conseil des Deux-Cents (Council of Two Hundred). The share even surpassed the majority of seats in the Conseil des Vingt-Cinq (Council of Twenty-Five), with 15 close relatives this time.44 This closeness among the Genevan families, which Herbert Lüthy rightly notes is particularly important in the Calvinist city, is widely found in the foreign service. Unsurprisingly, we find its members in the French service married or engaged to Lects, Michelis, or Gallatins. 13 of the 26 male members of the family having reached adulthood between 1685 and 1745 would enter the military profession at least for a time. Eight in the French service, and five in Piedmont and the Netherlands.45 Three members of the family, moreover, would serve together in the Micheli de Crest company in the Surbeck Regiment.
Jacques Pictet (1643â1721), for example, held the position of âgeneral of the artillery corpsâ of Geneva from 10 May 1686 until his death 35 years later.46 Then, from 1691 on, he was a quasi-permanent member of the Chamber of Accounts for nearly 20 years. Jean-Louis Pictet-Gallatin (1685â1739) joined the Surbeck regiment as an ensign at the age of 19. After eight years of service, he left behind the military life with the rank of captain-lieutenant and returned to Geneva. On the strength of his experience, the city entrusted him with one of the three Genevan companies involved in the Second Villmergen War. He would sum up this frustrating experience â the troop only arriving in Bern to learn that peace had been concluded â with a terse formula: veni, nihil vidi, redii.47 In the following years, his political career was especially and undeniably shaped by his brief military experience (see Table 11.1).
The career of Jean-Louis Pictet-Gallatin (1685â1739)
| Year | Position | Duration |
|---|---|---|
| 1714 | Named to the Conseil des Deux-Cents | unlimited |
| 1715 | Clerk in the Chamber of Fortifications | Until 1739 |
| 1716 | Auditor | 35 months |
| 1719 | Lieutenant in the artillery corps | - |
| 1721 | Member of the Small Council | lifetime appointment |
| 1721 | Clerk in the Artillery Chamber | Until 1735 |
| 1724 | Tax Clerk | Until 1727 |
| 1727 | Major of the Guard | 2 years |
| 1728 | Clerk in the Appeal Chamber | 3 years |
| 1729 | Captain of a company in the St-Gervais regimenta | - |
| 1732 | Tax Clerk | 2 years |
| 1735 | General in the Artillery Corps | 2 years |
| 1737 | Syndic of the Guard | 1 year |
SOURCE: CANDAUX, HISTOIRE, PP. 144â145.
AEG, Registres du Conseil 228, p. 212, he took over the company previously held by Jean Fatio.
Among all these functions, we should briefly examine that of Syndic of the Guard. At the time, four syndics elected by the Conseil général (General Council) held office for one year. The Syndic of the Guard, who was no less than the military chief of the city and commander of the cityâs garrison, was appointed from among them, without any specific rule or criterion to codify how this appointment took place.48 Hence, it is not surprising to find that the Pictets, who obtained the high office of syndic and could boast of military experience, were regularly assigned responsibility for the guard. Jacques Pictet would be
Consultation of the above-cited accounts of Pierre Pictet VII (1724â1813) shows that he cost his mother, on average, 227 livres and 8 sols per year for the first 15 years of his military career. It was only thereafter that he began to be able to support himself, after receiving command over a company.50 Along with his uncle Pierre IV Pictet (1685â1727), he was one of the few to be put in charge of his own company during a period of service. It seems that this would prove to be profitable in his case, since the improvement in his financial situation coincided with the acquisition of his company. Moreover, when he left
On the other hand, the information available to us on the company of Pierre IV is quite sparse and is almost entirely limited to a few lines in his will (he died of an illness while in service and in possession of his regiment), which indicate that he bequeaths âto his godson and nephew Pierre Pictet the entire proceeds that will result from the sale of his company, as well as that of his effects, crockery and equipmentâ.51 From a purely financial point of view, service often represented a significant investment â in personal equipment, for example â and requests for financial support from the family back home were not uncommon. In 1744, Jacques-François Pictet, an officer in the Swiss Guibert de Sissach regiment in Piedmont, had to ask his mother, Madame Pictet the Syndic, to pay the sum of 400 florins for him as the cost of five months of food. The receipt for the sum notes, âItâs I Susette [sister of Jacques-François] who sold a diamond to pay this sergeantâ.52
Let us cite one final representative of the Pictet family: namely, Marc Pictet-Micheli (1693â1768). The sixth son of Jean-Jacques Pictet, he only spent a very brief time serving under the French flag â barely five years â with the express aim of allowing his family to retain its presence in his fatherâs company. Hence, he would serve in the Surbeck regiment, evidently without finding great happiness there.53 Back in Geneva, he would have a long political career of some forty years, during which his only posts related to the military would be as a Major of the Guard in 1741, 1744, and 1747. In 1747, finally, he would take over command of another company: that of Théodore de Saussure.54 The case is an interesting one, because it illustrates the interest the Pictet family had in conserving a minimum amount of expertise in the military domain, despite the absence of officially contracted troops (troupes capitulées) and without there being any mention of a sense of duty toward the French crown. On the contrary, a reading of the family correspondence is more characterised by a highly utilitarian approach to the military experience. And the fact is that for this family, even if it was far from having the prestige and presence in the military of some families like the Grenuses, Gallatins or Buissons, the success
I flatter myself to think that if your son continues to have a taste for the service, you will not inhibit this inclination, above all for the service of France where I think it is better for him to go than any other, having never approved of the inconstancy of those who serve without any affection and change service solely out of self-interest: this is the greatest sign that you can give me of your friendship and of your approval of my way of thinking that one can be an honest man by god and men in all sorts of professions.56
If I did not tell you anything about the proposal that had been made to me to join the Guibert Regiment, it is because I had been asked for secrecy, and moreover, having no intention of accepting it, it was pointless to consult you about it. I will never serve anyone but you and the King of France, you can count on that.57
François Gallatinâs wishes for his offspring would be fulfilled: Their son would also enter the service of the Most Christian King and have a long and profitable career in it.
I owe you Madame all imaginable thanks, and a good deed of this nature and done so fittingly will never be forgotten neither by Monsieur Ryhiner, the Councillor, in Bern, nor by me, I will never even be at peace until I have found the means to convince you of my sincere gratitude, by blind obedience to your orders and a very deep respect with which I have the honour of being.58
On the subject of recruitment, there remains one aspect of great importance to discuss, without which all the rest could neither exist nor have any sense: namely, the men who make up the Genevan units in the French service.
4 The Composition of the Genevan Companies
As for the way in which the Genevan companies are maintained, I ask you in good faith my dear Chevalier, if in a state that absolutely does not want to consent to any of its captains recruiting in its territory, we can count on something and affirm that these companies will be of good quality. The King would like to increase spending on the Swiss, but he wants to have people form this nation.60
It should be noted that in Geneva, efforts were made to ensure that this particularity outlived the Ancien Régime. In a May 1816 report to the Ministry of War, the Duke of Richelieu mentions a request from the city of Calvin, which would like a secret convention on recruitment in Savoy. Arguing that ancient agreements allowed it to recruit on the territory of the Bishopric of Geneva, the city asks to be able to benefit from this ancient âsecretâ advantage once again. The request would be rejected this time on the grounds that Swiss regiments already had permission to recruit one quarter foreigners.64
In times of peace, the Court of France requires the Captains to have two thirds of the Companies comprised of real Swiss, or of people reputed to be so; the Savoyards of the Bishopric of Geneva have the advantage of being recognised as Swiss by the Genevan Captains; But in time of war, the court closes its eyes to the transgression of this ordinance; This goes so far that the current Genevan Captains can show by the examination of their general ledger, or the little monthly rolls, that there were times when they did not have a single one during the preceding wars: four, five,
six, I never saw ten at a time in any company; I served for 14 years, I do not believe I saw ten or twelve altogether in the company where I was.65
Several hypotheses can be put forward to explain this fact. In the first place, it should not be forgotten that the number of companies (or more often half-companies) was still modest compared to the number of them formed by other territories of the Confederation. In 1711, during one of the most important periods for Genevaâs troops, their estimated numbers, in terms of the normal numbers of troops at the time, was as presented in Table 11.2.
Genevaâs troops in France, 1711
| Unit | Number of troops |
|---|---|
| Buisson company, May regiment | 160â200 |
| Grenus company, Surbeck regiment | 160â200 |
| Grenus half-company, Surbeck regiment | 60â80 |
| Micheli Du Crest half-company,a Surbeck regiment | 60â80 |
| Lect half-company, Hessy regiment | 60â80 |
| Baltazar half-company, Hessy regiment | 60â80 |
| Fatio half-company, May regiment | 60â80 |
This is the unit in which Jean-Louis, Pierre and Marc Pictet served.
In the five decades to come, following a series of levies, the number of troops would briefly rise to fourteen half-companies, before falling again to five units in the 1760s. It should be noted, moreover, that starting in 1716, the number of men in Swiss companies rose to 160 (thus 80 in the half-companies) and that it was far from easy for their captains to maintain this number.
A consideration that I regard to be of the greatest importance and to which I beg your lordships to please give the most serious attention, is that we are only regarded as Swiss in France by virtue of service; if we let this link fall, we insensibly lose all of our privileges: a merchant, a worker will be facing trial, have a difficulty, a favour to request, the minister of his country will not be able to be of any use to him, the name Genevan will have no substance, no weight, whereas by the official recognition [lâaveu] of the Companies, he will acquire the same consideration and almost the same influence as those of the Swiss Cantons.67
But, not having its own regiment until the end of the 18th century and by virtue of its status as an allied territory, it was also far from receiving the same amount of benefit as its neighbours. The organisation of an internal recruitment regime thus responded neither to the same needs nor the same requirements. And let us not forget that the image of soldiers during the Enlightenment period was that of men who are âstupid and violent, but also unhappy, rootless and incapable of being integrated into civil societyâ.68 It is thus not surprising that it
Moreover, we regularly find reflections on the people to target for recruitment among the officers themselves. This issue is directly addressed in a 1763 joint letter by a group of Genevan officers serving in the Jenner/Erlach regiments, who were corresponding with Captain Turrettini. For this group of officers who were involved in recruitment, it was sure that preference should be given to recruiting Savoyards and foreigners.69 Some went even further and said that it is worthwhile to target fairs and markets specifically for their recruitment efforts, where these two populations are even far more numerous depending on the location. Nonetheless, these officers were far from being opposed to the recruitment of people from Geneva, but they were, above all, very conscience that it was not viewed favourably by the Small Council and the Conseil des Deux-Cents. They prudently suggest even adding a clause to a possible authorisation of recruitment in the city that âdoes not allow them to enlist any son of a citizen without his fatherâs consent, any minor without that of his guardian, any worker or servant without the consent of his masterâ.70 The latter should not be turned away from their just paths by making them soldiers and thus people who lead bad lives. The question is obviously not at all the same when it is a matter of officers.
Finally, a last aspect that should not be overlooked are the motives of the conscripts themselves. The advantageous pay, which was greater than that of French regiments or those of other nations, was already one of the strongest and most obvious arguments. The appeal of a favourable border regime was not something new, especially when, as is the case here, it was âlegallyâ accepted, and thus explains one of the most important motives prompting Savoyards to enlist in the Genevan companies. As far as foreigners and transient populations â refugees in particular â in unfavourable personal and economic situations were concerned, it is not surprising or new either to find that they represent an important reservoir for recruitment. It is logical that the various letters, regulations and ordinances frequently come back to the need especially to monitor the way in which recruitment was conducted in the border regions, where the strongest population movements were concentrated. This is a problem that is also known in the other border regions of the Confederation.
Starting in the second half of the 18th century, another no less important aspect, which we find repeatedly emphasized in the motives of the Savoyards in particular, was the pension regime for disabled soldiers, of which the
5 Conclusion
Genevan military entrepreneurship in the service of France existed during the Ancien Régime. But due to the cityâs special situation and the marginality of military entrepreneurship, even for a large part of the families that had recourse to it, it is not easy to study. The sources are still extremely scarce today, and the writings to which they refer are often difficult to find. Accordingly, scholarship has so far paid little attention to the subject. And yet, as we have seen in the preceding pages, there was no lack of contemporaries arguing in favour of the activity. In the famous 1763 memorandum cited in the introduction, the officers do not hesitate to link their own self-interest to the interest of the Republic as a whole in their continuing their military activity: âThe public interested is connected to the interest of particular individuals in this affair ⦠if we are supposed to allow citizens [of Geneva] who today possess companies in France to lose this patrimony which they risked their lives to acquire or which was bequeathed to them by their fathers, but also if we are supposed to let citizens in general lose the ability to possess such companies.â73 The same
The question of troop recruitment deserves to be studied more: both for the French service and for the other services to which they city of Calvin contributed. In this respect, it becomes quite clear that for the majority of the families studied, the geographic origin of the recruit was, finally, a very secondary matter as compared to the conditions of enlistment. The argument of wanting to introduce centralised and controlled recruitment to block illicit âwildâ recruitment was frequently put forward, which bears witness to the significance of the phenomenon.
Should not our government view our military establishment as being part of the system of having one in all states? And cupidity for cupidity is ours a greater burden than that of Commerce? It is at the expense of our lives that we reach a condition of subsistence that does not provoke envy, and a businessman often acquires an immense subsistence despite
the money which is entrusted to him, and whose loss does not at all entail his own. If we are like a beehive that is perpetually ejecting swarms, is it within or without that we must ensure all our kinds of existence, will it be against the moral and physical principles of nature that we inculcate in the generations to come that of suffocating themselves, for lack of emigration?77
Geneva, Archives de lâEtat de Genève [AEG], archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 81: âJe sais quâon se plaint à la cour, que la République a montré trop de hauteur et de difficultés dans les arrangements à prendre pour les Officiers, et les Compagnies quelle a à nôtre service.â
Although he is not mentioned, in reading the letter as a whole, it would seem that the reference is to the Duke of Choiseul.
Rudolf Bolzern, âVervins, traité de,â 2011, in Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse [DHS]. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/026463/2011-09-29/. Accessed 16 February 2022.
Valentin Groebner, âPensions,â 2011, in DHS. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/010241/2011-11-03/. Accessed 2 August 2021.
Annika Gil, Officiers genevois au service de France au XVIIIe siècle: François, Jean, Gaspard-Gabriel Gallatin et les autres (unpublished BA thesis, University of Geneva, 1994).
André Holenstein, Patrick Kury, and Kristina Schulz, Schweizer Migrationsgeschichte: Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (Baden, 2018), pp. 47â59; André Holenstein, Au coeur de lâEurope: Une histoire de la Suisse entre ouverture et repli (Lausanne, 2018).
Corinne Walker, Histoire de Genève: De la cité de Calvin à la ville française (1530â1813), 2 (Neuchâtel, 2014), p. 29.
Herbert Lüthy, La Banque protestante de la Révocation de lâédit de Nantes à la Révolution, 1â2 (Paris, 1959-61).
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706, document 705: âLâheureux emplacement de Genève au milieu de trois Etats, formant un debouché de la Suisse et une grande communication entre lâItalie et lâAllemagne, ce qui fait surtout en temps de guerre un passage continuel de rodeurs et de deserteurs, et en temps de paix dâouvriers de toute espece qui cherche de lâouvrage et qui sâenrollent parse quâils nâen trouvent pas.â
Geneva, Fondations des archives de la famille Pictet [FAP], Fonds de famille, notes diverses.
Martine Piguet et al., âGenève (commune),â 2018, in DHS. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/002903/2018-02-07/. Accessed 16 February 2022.
Thomas Hippler, Soldats et citoyens: Naissance du service militaire en France et en Prusse (Paris, 2006), pp. 40â41.
Bernard Lescase, âUne ville sous les armes,â in Vivre à Genève autour de 1600: Ordre et désordres, 2, eds. Liliane Mottu-Weber, Anne-Marie Piuz, and Bernard Lescaze (Geneva, 2006), p. 290.
Henriette L.T. De Beaufort, Guillaume dâOrange le Taciturne (Geneva, 1950), p. 85.
Jean Chagniot, Guerre et société à lâépoque moderne (Paris, 2001), p. 39.
Michel Porret, ââOn lâa fait marcher par forceâ: Enrôleurs et enrôlés à Genève au XVIIIème siècle ou les circonstances dâun délit âconséquent pour lâEtat et les particuliersâ,â in Gente ferocissima: Mercenariat et société en Suisse (XVeâXIXe siècle), eds. Norbert Furrer et al. (Zurich/Lausanne, 1997), 89â100.
Marco Cicchini, âLa désertion: Mobilité, territoire, contrôles: Enjeux sociaux et politiques au siècle des Lumières,â in Dix-huitième Siècle: Politiques et cultures des Lumières 37 (2005), 101â115. See also idem, La police de la République: Lâordre public à Genève au XVIIIe siècle (Rennes, 2012).
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706, document 704.
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706, document 703.
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706, Mémoire fait sur la demande faite par Monsieur le Comte dâAffri aux officiers genevois dâobtenir de leurs supérieurs la permissions de recruter sur les terres de la République, document 705.
Lüthy, La Banque.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre de Madame Gallatin à son fils, n.d., p. 19.
Hervé Drevillon, Lâimpôt du sang, le métier des armes sous Louis XIV (Paris, 2005), p. 187.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 1.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre de Madame Gallatin à son fils, n.d., p. 19.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre du Prince de Dombes adressée à Monsieur Gallatin, 8 November 1738, p. 13.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre du Prince de Dombes adressée à Monsieur Gallatin, 8 November 1738, p. 14: âCe traité, dont je ne multiplieray assurement pas les exemples doit se faire vous à moy, et non avec aucun autre, pas même avec le sieur Michely, marqués moy donc bien au juste, supposé que vous vous déterminiés à cette acquisition, jusquâou vous pouvés allerâ.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre du Prince de Dombes adressée à Monsieur Gallatin, 3 January 1739, p. 15.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre de Madame Gallatin à son fils, n.d., p. 20.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre de François Gallatin à son épouse, 10 March 1745, p. 62.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre de mon cousin Pictet de Sergy adressé à ma mère, 7 July 1745, p. 21.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre de M. de la Courauchantre à Madame Gallatin, 9 July 1745, p. 30.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Commission de la Compagnie levée et incorporée dans le Régiment Suisse de Bettens, 20 Octobre 1734, p. 1.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Protocoles de brevets, comissions, lettres de la Cour, correspondance militaire, mémoires et autres pièces relatives au service pour mon père et moy, 1ère partie: François et Jean de Gallatin.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 83: âIl faut décider, dis-je, si les Particuliers qui par le consentement de la seigneurerie ont fait ces levées, qui les ont transmis à leur descendans, à leur famille comme un patrimoine, si les citoyens que sur la foy de cet usage ont servi et servent des long tems dans la vue dâobtenir ces compagnies, si tous les citoyens enfin qui ont droit à ces troupes doivent en être privées, et que le gouvernement prenne ce parti dans le moment ou le traitement du service devient meilleur, ou une compagnie vaudra 6000 Livres par an, ou un subalterne augmente en appointements de manière quâil peut vivre honorablement de sa paye et ou enfin la composition du régiment des gardes suisses ne lâaffectant à aucun canton, laisse à tous les officiers servans dans les differens régiments suisses la chance de parvenir aux compagnies de ce corpsâ.
Philippe Henry, âGardes suisses,â 2007, in DHS. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008623/2007-06-29/. Accessed 2 June 2021.
Marcel Burin des Rozies, Les capitulations Militaires entre la Suisse et la France (London, 1902), p. 194â195.
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706, document 702.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Mémoire présenté au Petit Conseil, 13 August 1763, p. 84.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Mémoire présenté au Petit Conseil, 13 August 1763, p. 86.
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706, document 705. It is interesting to note that Captain Micheli de Crest also employs the term pépinière, and that he frequently uses the different arguments in favour of the undertaking in the same order and in the same terms, which leaves little doubt that the various Genevan officers had significant exchange on the subject.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 78: âLes genevois qui voudront servir auront lâagrement dâêtre commandés par leurs compatriotes, et leurs parens pourront bien plus aisément sâaccomoder avec leurs capitaines, que sâils étoient dâun autre Cantonâ.
Barbara Roth, âPictet,â 2010, in DHS. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/025551/2010-02-08/. Accessed 7 August 2021.
Lüthy, La Banque, p. 40.
Jean-Daniel Candaux, Histoire de la famille Pictet 1474â1974 (Geneva, 2006).
Candaux, Histoire, p. 75.
Candaux, Histoire, p. 144.
Marco Cicchini, âMilices bourgeoises et garde soldée à Genève au XVIIIe siècle: Le républicanisme classique à lâépreuve du maintien de lâordre,â Revue dâhistoire moderne & contemporaine 61:2 (2014), 120â149.
Fabrice Brandli, Le nain et le Géant: La République de Genève et la France au XVIIIe siècle: Cultures politiques et diplomatie (Rennes, 2012), p. 41.
FAP, fonds de famille correspondance Pierre Pictet.
FAP, Testaments, pièce B6.
FAP, pièce G8.
FAP, correspondance Marc II.
FAP, correspondance Marc II.
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706, document 705.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Lettre de François Gallatin à son épouse, 10 March 1745, p. 62; AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 18: âJe me flatte que si ton fils continue a avoir du gout pour le service, tu ne generas pas son inclination, surtout pour le service de France ou je crois quâil lui convient mieux dâaller que tout autre, nâayant jamais approuvé lâinconstance de ceux qui servent sans aucune affection, changent de service uniquement par interet: câest la plus grande marque que tu puisses me donner de ton amitié et de ton approbation a ma façon de penser que lâon peut être honnête homme selon dieu et selon les hommes dans toutes sortes de professionâ.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, article extrait dâune lettre de mon père à ma mère, 23 August 1737, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 20: âSi je ne tâai rien mandé de la proposition quâon mâavoit faite pour entrer dans le Régiment de Guibert, câest que lâon mâavait demandé le secret, et que dâailleurs nâétant pas intentionné de lâaccepter il était inutile que je te consultasse la dessus. Je ne servirai jamais que toy et le Roy de France, tu peux tabler la dessusâ.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Lettre de M. Ryhyner à Madame Gallatin, 19 May 1751, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 38: âJe vous en dois Madame tous les remerciemens imaginable, et un bienfait de cette nature et appliqué si à propos ne sera jamais oublié ni par M. le Conseiller Ryhiner à Berne, ni par moy, je ne serai même jamais tranquile que je naye trouvé les moyens de vous convaincre de ma sincere reconaissance, par une aveugle obéissance à vos ordres et un très profond respect avec lequel jâai lâhoneur dâêtreâ.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Lettre de Monsieur de Bettens à François Gallatin, 1 February 1739, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 15.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, extrait dâune lettre de Monsieur de Besenval cité dans un mémoire dâofficiers genevois à destination du Petit Conseil, 13 August 1763, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 81: âQuand à la façon dont les compagnies genevoises sont entretenues, je vous demande en bonne foy mon cher chevalier, si dans un état qui ne veut pas absolument consentir quâaucun de ses capitaines, recrute dans son territoire, on peut compter sur quelque chose, et mettre en avant que ces compagnies seront de bon aloy. Le Roy veut bien faire une augmentation de dépense pour les Suisses, mais il entend dâavoir des nationauxâ.
Burin des Rozies, Les capitulations, p. 207.
Vincennes, Service historique de la défense [SHD], sous-série YB, règlements militaires. The province of Montbéliard, which was the one cited most regularly as being the target of significant recruitment efforts, should be mentioned in particular in this connection.
SHD, sous-série YB, règlements militaires.
SHD, sous-série YB, correspondance diplomatique, Rapport fait au Ministre, 8 May 1816, GR XG 6.
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706., document 705: âEn tems de paix la Cour de France oblige les Capitaines dâavoir les deux tiers des Compagnies formees de véritables Suisses, ou de gens reputer tels; les Savoyards de lâEveché de Genève ont lâavantage dâêtre reconnus Suisses par les Capitaines Genevois; Mais en temps de guerre, la cour ferme les yeux a la transgression de cette ordonnance; Cela va au point que les Capitaines Genevois actuels peuvent demontrer par lâexamen de leur Grand Livre, ou les petits rolles de chaque mois, que pendant les guerres precedantes, il y a eu des momens ou ils nâen ont pas eu un seul: quatre, cinq, six, je nâen ai jamais vu dix a la fois dans aucune compagnie; jâai servi pendant 14 ans, je ne crois pas dâen avoir vu dix ou douze en tout dans la compagnie ou jâétaisâ.
SHD, 1993/028.2, Colour photo of the map of Philipsbourg made by Micheli du Crest in December 1730, with the accompanying Memorandum, A2339, fol. 4.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Copie dâun mémoire envoyé à M. le Premier Syndic et adressé au Petit Conseil par le Comte de Gallatin, 1774, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 172: âUne considération que je regarde come de la plus grande importance et à la quelle je supplie vos seigneuries de vouloir bien faire la plus serieuse attention, câest que nous ne sommes regardés en France come Suisses que par le Service, si nous laissons échapper ce lien, nous perdons insensiblement tous nos privilèges: un négociant, un ouvrier aura un procès, une difficulté une grace à solliciter, le ministre de son pays ne pourra lui être dâaucune utilité, le nom de genevois nâaura aucune consistence, aucun poids, au lieu que par lâaveu des Compagnies il acquera la même considération et presque la même influence que ceux des Cantons Suissesâ.
Hippler, Soldats, p. 41.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 78.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 78.
AEG, Papiers de Jean-Louis Micheli-Thellusson, Mémoire divers (1772â1783), Archives privées 198.706., document 705.
Jean-Pierre Bois, âUne politique de la vieillesse: La retraite des vieux soldats, 1762â1790,â Annales de démographie historique (1985), 7â20.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, pp. 79â80.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, p. 80.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre de Monsieur lâancien Sindic Grenus à Monsieur Gallatin, n.d., p. 144.
Hervé de Weck, âLullin de Châteauvieux, Jacques André,â 2011, in DHS. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/de/articles/023985/2011-05-12/. Accessed 9 September 2022.
AEG, archives de famille Gallatin, Compagnie de Gallatin, Archives privées 44.3.1, Lettre de M. Michely de Crest, Capitaine aide major au Régiment Suisse de Diesbach à M. Gallatin, 27 July 1773, p. 133: âNôtre gouvernement ne doit il pas voir notre établissement militaire comme rentrant dans le système dâen avoir dans tous les états? Et cupidité pour cupidité la nôtre lui est elle plus à charge que celle du Commerce? Câest au dépend de nos vies que nous arrivons a un état de subsistance que ne reveille pas lenvie, et un negociant en acquiert souvent une immense aux depens de lâargent qui lui est confié, et dont la perte nentraine point la sienne. Si nous sommes comme une ruche dâabeille qui jette perpétuellement des essains, est ce au dedant ou au dehors quâil faut assurer tous nos genres dâexistence, sera ce contre les principes moraux et phisiques de la nature quâon inculquera aux générations à venir celui de sâétouffer, faute dâémigrations?â