In 18th and 19th centuries Switzerland, officer positions in the foreign service, especially starting from the rank of captain,1 often involved heavy competition. The âsocial and symbolic benefitsâ2 or âcultural capitalâ3 of the career of a high-ranking officer were still important for some families in the aristocratic or patrician elites, despite the onset of a certain economic and social decline in the Swiss foreign service. The 18th century, the century of the Enlightenment, was in fact characterised by institutional changes in military entrepreneurship: such as reforms in âarmy regulations, which become more restrictive and more structuredâ, as well as stricter discipline and a worsening of soldiersâ living conditions, in particular.4 The financial situation of war entrepreneurs was deteriorating: The investments costs for raising a company were increasing and recruitment was becoming difficult in a society that had an increasingly negative perception of the military profession5 and in which the wages paid by emerging domestic industry offered an attractive alternative to military
In this context of institutional, economic, and social transition in the foreign service, if âname and social originâ8 were an undeniable asset for the men of the Swiss elites, they were not necessarily a guarantee of promising and rapid professional advancement. Firstly, it should be noted that companies and regiments constituted important âpatronage resourcesâ that could be freely attributed or withdrawn by the sponsoring European states: thus the King of France, the main employer of the officers dealt with in this chapter, could grant or abolish companies or divide them in two as he saw fit and the Swiss officers did not have any influence in the matter.9 As for the subordinate ranks below that of captain, they could be assigned by the company commanders. Military careers in the foreign service were organised around ties of solidarity and established networks, both in the army â âservice clienteles based on connections and hierarchiesâ â and in âdurable, highly supportive, social groups based on kinshipâ.10 Some young nobles or young men from patrician families thus started their career in a company or regiment that was under the command of a relative. But their more or less rapid progression through the ranks depended as much on family ties as on patronage ties that family members or they themselves had developed over the years, as well as on their financial resources and, to a lesser extent, their individual abilities. Even if they were neither the
If recent historical research tends to look more and more at the question of the importance of family both in careers and in the organisation of companies and regiments,13 the historian Nathalie Büsser is the first to have undertaken a finely-grained analysis of the economic and professional involvement of female members of the military elites in the context of foreign service.14 Her studies on the French service of the Zurlauben family from Zug and the Reding family from Schwyz have shed light on the role played by women in recruiting soldiers and managing the administrative tasks of companies from
In line with these studies, the present contribution aims to analyse the involvement of women from the families of the military elites of Valais, Vaud, and Fribourg (i.e. much of the French-speaking part of todayâs Switzerland)16 in promoting the careers of the men in their circles in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is thus interesting to examine this period of fundamental transformation for the Swiss foreign service, but also for the logics of kinship that âdirectly affect the role of women ⦠in the familyâ,17 through the prism of gender. In a context of greater economic and social pressure, gendered spheres are more permeable than expected, and the role of relatives proves to be more decisive than gender in the family career strategies of the military elites.
The present study thus proposes to examine these female intercessions, which are both indirect and informal, in careers in the foreign service and then to show how they form part of a broader network of intra-family support and are found in practices and venues of both female and mixed sociability. We will also highlight the economic character of womenâs support for the military careers of their family members who are mainly serving in France, but also in the Dutch Republic or Naples. Personal documents in the family archival collections held by Swiss cantonal archives and libraries constitute the privileged material for identifying these manoeuvres and their contexts.18
Several studies on the old Swiss Confederation underscore the importance that matrimonial ties could have for military careers. In her analysis of the Courten regiment, a regiment in the French service from Valais, Louiselle Gally-de Riedmatten highlights the role played by marriage, as well as the connections between parents and godparents, in the clientelistic ties with the military entrepreneurs of the de Courten family: thus âfor the men of the regiment from Valais, women were an important vector for creating connectionsâ in career terms.19 Similarly, and still in Valais, some of the sons of the Torrenté family appear to have undertaken a military career because their mothers had ties with the Kalbermatten family who were recruiting and were in command of a regiment from Valais in the service of Sardinia.20 The same observation can be made for other major lines of Swiss officers like the DâAffrys or the Diesbachs from Fribourg: the repeated marriages between these two families allowed the Diesbachs to pass positions of lieutenant in the Compagnie des Cent-Suisses in the French service from one generation to the next, whereas the âDâAffrys prospered in the Guardsâ.21
Monsieur le Colonel.
Although I do not have the honour of being known to you, I rely on the title of being the sister-in-law of Monsieur le Major Meinrad de Werra with whom you served in France and for whom my sister, his widow, tells me that he had a great deal of affection for you; In this capacity, Monsieur le Colonel, I dare to take the liberty of presenting to you the request that
my concern as mother for a son without status and whom our wealth does not allow us to keep at home without a means to earn his living. I am thus asking for your protection, Monsieur le Colonel; If there was a place open in your regiment, my son served honourably in the Sonderbund, holds very conservative principles, the young gentlemen serving in Naples will do him justice in this regard. I hope, Monsieur le Colonel, that you will not reject the prayer of a poor mother and of her family who will bless you every instant of her life if, thanks to your protection, my son can find a status in Naples that we are seeking in vain in Valais. The hope for a favourable response will provide comfort to my heart, and I pray God to protect you always. Please accept, Monsieur le Colonel, the deep respect with which I have the honour of being Anne Gard, née de la Pierre. St-Maurice, 16 January 1850.25
It is clear that the Gards could neither claim to know the colonel personally nor to be related to him, which represented a definite handicap in this era and in this particular milieu. In effect, a kinship tie, even by marriage and distant, seems like a strong argument in a request.26 Nonetheless, Madame Gard succeeded in establishing a connection to Augustin de Riedmatten via her late brother-in-law, who had ties of military camaraderie with the colonel.
Monsieur le Colonel. Monsieur de Riedmatten your dear uncle having informed me of your honoured and gracious response to the letter he had the honour of writing to you to recommend my eldest son. I want to express my gratitude to you, as well as for all the kind things with which you honour me and likewise my family. ⦠I thus dare, Monsieur le Colonel, to ask you please to take an interest in his appointment and to look after him when he will have left me. I recommend him to the entirely fatherly concern with which you honour all those who are around you. I have reason to believe that you will never have to regret it and that you will find in my son the gratefulness that is so rightly your due.38
As for the aim I had set myself, it was to recommend my only son to the graces of the king, to whose service he would be as devoted as two of my brothers, who died in His Majestyâs troops; one being a lieutenant-colonel in his Swiss guards, and the other a captain in the same unit, and my son, as well as myself, we were no less brave and had no less desire to serve so great a king usefully.40
It is not likely that the general promotion will appear before the fall, since if it is published too early, a large number of regiments will be deprived of their heads, who will be made generals, during the period of manoeuvres and reviews. Nonetheless, mothers, women, and sisters are already mobilised to ask for posts, and the ministries are seeing sixty people a day.42
The role played by the women of the elites in the careers of their male relatives rarely appeared directly and frontally in Swiss territories: It formed part of a broader family support network, as shown by the example of Joséphine de Roten, as well as the cases from Valais and Vaud to follow.
2 Networks of Family Support for Military Careers
I have been extremely tormented ⦠for the last eight days, I am going to tell you the story: Mme Ignace wrote to cousin du Fay that we were working on getting the [struck out: compag] pension for M. de la Pierre,45 right away, without telling me anything, cousin worked on his uncle to try to get you the commission, he spoke about it to mother [Julienne dâOdet] who told him that she would give a hundred pistoles to get it for you. Cousin went up to Sion and spoke about it to his uncle who did not want any money at all and who replied [struck out: to him] that he was quite annoyed that we did not speak about it to him earlier, that his sister had asked for this place for her son but that he had not yet promised it to her and that he would like to be able to arrange things to give it to you but that he would like to see the capitulation before deciding. Cousin promised to send it to him and upon his return, he advised mother to write to him and that I would make a duplicate of the letter but that she would write it in her own hand, after cousin du Fayâs departures.46
Your cousin the assessor Deloës wrote to mad[ame] his sister in Neuchâtel to have you recommended to mons[ieur] Monnin she who has spoken to persons of distinction on this subject ⦠She pays you a lot of compliments and says that she would like to have the opportunity to be able to please you.56
Thanks to these relatives who effectively mobilised several Bernese patricians in his favour, his progress through the ranks â seven years instead of, on average, ten years to obtain a lieutenantâs commission in 1736 â turned out, finally, to be rapid for the time.57 Here, the efforts of the young Deloësâ family network proved to be more productive than in the case of dâOdet; it should be noted, however, that what was being asked for was a post as subordinate officer, which was easier to obtain.
It occurred to me my dear friend that I had not explained to you the arrangement of my company clearly enough and as much perhaps for
the edification of our friend dâAubonne and for your own satisfaction, you need to have this; after the requested resignations, here is how the officers should follow:
Count de Golowkin59 c[aptai]n c[omman]der
Mestral de Pampigny, first l[ieute]nant
Wilhelm [Guillaume] Constant, second lieutenant, without number until he is old enough but with wages.
La Pottrie, sub-lieutenant
Wettstein the elder, an ensignâs wages
An ensign to do without wages until Wilhelm [Guillaume] serves, so M. May60 is committed to give 375 fl[orains] per year and a manâs pay is altogether 515 fl[orains].61
Understand this well and discuss it with dâAubonne once you see that his intentions are good; if you see that he is fully one of our friends, tell him everything, even the matter of not taking la Pottrie into his company since if I do not have la Pottrie I think that I would renounce everything for my son.63
On the shores of Lake Geneva, Louise succeeded in convincing Captain dâAubonne, probably during a soirée organised by his sisters, Marie and Elisabeth dâAubonne: social events picked up in fact when their officer brothers are on leave in Switzerland.64 Per her husbandâs wishes, Louise only still had to look for an ensign at no. 5 who would not pose a threat to their sonâs career. âThe point now my dear friendâ, dâHermenches wrote her in September 1762, âis to find a young man who would like to be a supernumerary for two years for next spring ⦠Chance may perhaps present him to you without appearing to look for him, on the contrary, the thing is good enough to be asked forâ.65 David-Louis also recommended that his wife ask his father-in-law, the mayor Jean-Samuel de Seigneux, her mother Rose or her relative M. de Bercher66 to suggest someone to her.67 Louise Constant dâHermenchesâ mission was a success: Young Guillaumeâs military career was henceforth assured.
Numerous analyses in the modern history of the family, both in Europe and in Switzerland, highlight a phenomenon of intensified collaboration between relatives: at the level of consanguineous marriages and of the choice of godparents, as well as within the system of power or production in the 18th and 19th centuries.68 Similarly, David Sabean and Simon Teuscher reveal
3 Womenâs Networks
Relatives, frequently the wives of the captain or the colonel, became âtransmission beltsâ73 that were given priority by other women (and sometimes men) who were trying to promote the career advancement of a family member or an acquaintance.
Mme de Lily and M. and Mme de Chamergis visited me for two days a short time ago and asked me to tell you about a young de Lily whom Mme his mother would very much like you to take into your company, he is in that of M. de la Pierre, he is a good-natured youngster whom you would only have to recommend to one of your officers and give him full power over his conduct.74
On the occasion of another social call, moreover, Madame de Lautigny asked her to recommend âa certain Duval from the region of Gexâ, who was an ensign in her husbandâs regiment, âto promote him when the opportunity shall ariseâ.75
In 1744, at the request of her relative, Mlle de Grancy, Françoise de Chandieu, née de Montrond (1722â77) â Catherineâs daughter-in-law â asked her husband Benjamin (1701â84), captain of a company in the French service, for a standard bearer position for Grancyâs nephew. Not having a position to fill, Benjamin de Chandieu urged her to ask his brother Esaïe (1700â75), captain of a half-company in the Swiss Guards.76 Finally, faced with the latterâs silence, Benjamin replied to his wife: âI have written to Mlle de Grancy to offer her a standard bearer place for her nephew, in the company of one of my friendsâ.77
In Geneva, Benjaminâs sister-in-law, Esaïeâs wife, Angélique Henriette de Chandieu-Villars, née Pelissari (1695â1765?), received via Mlle Ducret a request from Mme de Wattenville for her to write Monsieur de Chandieu, namely her
Thus by way of social calls â which were an integral part of the social life of the aristocratic elites of Vaud â womenâs discussion groups and other gatherings, as well as by way of correspondence, âwomen created a semi-public arena in which the supposedly private linked into and overlapped with the public. It was the women who drew all the information together and were thus able to shape the relationship networks to their own and their familiesâ benefitâ.80 In the case of the Chandieu family, we should underscore the nepotistic character of the female requests, which apart from one exception concerned subordinate positions.
4 Genderless Economic Support
A career in the foreign service often depended heavily on the financial support of oneâs family.81 The officers needed cash when acquiring a company, but also to run the business (expenses related to recruitment, transport, and provisions, which increased, moreover, in periods of war). These men of the elites also had to be able to fit in when frequenting the high society of the garrison towns or the European courts where they did their service.
The military entrepreneursâ significant need for capital, as well as the indebtedness into which many of them fell, had concrete implications for the women of the family. In 1776, the aforementioned Ãlisabeth dâAubonne and her brother Paul Rudolphe had to advance the large sum of 37,731 livres to erase the debts of their youngest brother David Louis, even though he was a major-general in the Dutch service. The latter, âhaving been so imprudent as
The officersâ financial problems did not only affect their sisters, but frequently also their wives. Between 1783 and 1785, several letters from Charles de Preux, captain in the French service, to the colonel of his regiment highlight the economic difficulties he had in trying to support his family. He complains about the slowness of his progress through the ranks and asks, one after another, for the rank of major in the regiment and then a company, pleading that he has limited wealth and âtoo manyâ children. In response to Colonel de Courten, who is concerned about the disorder in his affairs, de Preux replies: âAll the debts I have contracted are backed by mortgages given by my legally authorized wifeâ.84 Since their marriage in 1770, the revenues from the significant landed holdings of captain de Preuxâs wife had in fact allowed the captain to erase his debts and keep their household afloat.85
Significant debts were also the wedding present given by Christophe de Diesbach (1742â1819), captain in the Swiss dâErlach regiment in the French service, to his new wife Esther de Joffrey (1752â89) in 1779. When his mother-in- law, Louise de Joffrey, née de Mestral de St-Saphorin (1728â1800), granted her daughter Estherâs hand in marriage to the Bernese patrician, a member of the Sovereign Council of the city and Republic of Bern, the noblewoman from Vaud thought that she was in fact concluding an advantageous marriage. Blinded by the refinement, amiability, âpolitenessâ,86 and âworldly mannersâ87 of Christophe de Diesbach and filled with âadmiration for his very noble
The involvement of women in recruiting soldiers on behalf of a relative, which we have observed among numerous members of our study panel, could contribute to the financial prosperity of the company (since an incomplete company was frequently synonymous with financial loss).97 However, some subordinate officers also asked for their familyâs assistance in recruiting men for their captain or colonel in the hope of making themselves look good and obtaining a promotion.98 In this sense, recruitment conducted by women back home could also contribute indirectly to the career advancement of subordinate officers.
If women made careers, they could also hinder them, like in the case of Ãlisabeth Castella, née de Boccard de Grangettes (1676â1760), a widow from Fribourg. In 1730, Castellaâs accounts make clear that she managed the money (pension from France, land rents, interest on the town house, etc.) of her son Nicolas-Albert, an unmarried lieutenant in the Castella de Delley company in the French service.99 Madame Castella held the rights of administration and usufruct of the family property. Starting in the 17th and 18th centuries, widows in fact benefited from a soft guardianship that tended to take the form of tutelage, some legislation in French-speaking Switzerland allowing a husband to designate his wife as tutor of their children in a will.100 According to the historian Rita Binz-Wohlhauser, this maternal control over the family estate
5 Conclusion
The feminised sociability of the 18th century, the close connections between kinship groups and clienteles, and the informal character of nepotistic manoeuvres provided women a legitimate scope of action for intervening in the careers of their male relatives, as was the case, moreover, in other professional and political fields in the Switzerland of the Ancien Régime.107 Social alliance networks, clientelism and patronage could thus be part of the daily lives of women in the Swiss territories. Although they are not able to hold public office until the 20th century, they were able to play a key role as âtransmission
But analysis of female intercession in military careers reveals several tendencies: Requests for places were rarely made âdirectlyâ. Several of our examples, like Madame Roten and Madame dâOdet, show in fact that it was hardly appropriate for a woman to ask directly for a favour from a man she did not know and hence women had to use an intermediary: a relative or another woman, for example. Similarly, women went into action especially when close male relatives who could provide support â a father, brother or uncle in the military profession â were lacking. Finally, it is logical that in our sources, female intercession on Swiss territory is most often apparent for subordinate officer positions. The higher-ranking positions were in fact governed by political and clientelistic logics and conditions connected to seniority that were applied more consistently in the second half of the 18th century. Women, who were excluded from the spheres of political and military power, thus had a more limited capacity for exerting influence at the top of the military hierarchy. In line with the work of the historian Nathalie Büsser, who pioneered the analysis of womenâs involvement in family military entrepreneurship, we have today to relativise the idea of âfields of actionâ or tasks that are specific to one or the other sex in the families of officers in the foreign service.109 Nathalie Büsser made her observation with respect to womenâs involvement in military recruitment, but it also applies to female interventions in the military careers of their relatives.
A captainâs position represented an important step in a military career: An officer who became a captain left behind the subordinate ranks (cadet, ensign, second lieutenant, and lieutenant) to obtain command over a company, see Louiselle Gally-de Riedmatten, Du Sang contre de lâor: Le service étranger en Valais sous lâAncien Régime (unpublished PhD diss., University of Bern, 2014), p. 704.
Marianne Stubenvoll, âLa noblesse vaudoise: jalon dâune recherche,â in De lâOurs à la Cocarde: Régime bernois et révolution en pays de Vaud (1536â1798), eds. François Flouck et al. (Lausanne, 1998), 311â323, p. 320.
Nathalie Büsser, âMilitärunternehmertum, Aussenbeziehungen und fremdes Geld,â in Geschichte des Kantons Schwyz: Herren und Bauern 1550â1712, 3, ed. Historischer Verein des Kantons Schwyz (Zurich, 2012), 69â127, p. 122.
Nathalie Büsser, âDrängende Geschäfte: Die Söldnerwerbungen Maria Jakobea Zurlaubens um 1700 und ihr verwandtschaftliches Beziehungsnetz,â Der Geschichtsfreund: Mitteilungen des Historischen Vereins Zentralschweiz 161 (2008), 189â224, p. 194.
Philippe Henry, âService étranger,â 2017, in Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse [DHS]. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/008608/2017-12-08/. Accessed 14 July 2020.
In central Switzerland, the nascent textile industry offered the rural population a secondary source of income, according to Büsser, âMilitärunternehmertum,â p. 121.
Henry, âService étrangerâ.
Laura Bottiglieri, Louiselle Gally-de Riedmatten, âJean Melchior Wyrsch: suite militaire: Les portraits des officiers du régiment de Courten 1768â1780,â Vallesia 66 (2011), 301â377, p. 319.
Philippe Rogger, âKompaniewirtschaft, Verflechtungszusammenhänge, familiale Unternehmensorganisation: Die Zurlauben als Militärunternehmer auf den eidgenössischen Söldnermärkten um 1700,â in Soldgeschäfte, Klientelismus, Korruption in der Frühen Neuzeit: Zum Soldunternehmertum der Familie Zurlauben im schweizerischen und europäischen Kontext, eds. Kaspar von Greyerz, André Holenstein, and Andreas Würgler (Göttingen, 2018), 211â237, p. 213.
Anne-Lise Head-König, âLâascension des entrepreneurs militaires: Jost Brendlé lieutenant-général au service de France,â in 1291â1991: Lâéconomie Suisse: histoire en trois actes, ed. Gérard Geiger (St-Sulpice, 1991), 82â85, p. 82; François Cojonnex, âEntre la France et la Hollande, un destin mercenaire: Esaie de Chandieu (1660â1706),â in Mercenariat et service étranger: Actes du Symposium 2008, eds. Michel Chabloz et al. (Pully, 2010), 171â189, p. 175.
For Valais and Vaud, both Louiselle Gally-de Riedmatten and François Cojonnex have shown how much the aspects influencing the careers of higher-ranking officers go beyond family strategies. Both of them analyse the impact of patronage ties, as well as political factors: respectively, on the appointment of six colonels in the Courten regiment and, in the case of Cojonnex, on that of Charles de Chandieu from Vaud to head the Manuel regiment, the first permanent army unit composed of Swiss in France, see Gally-de Riedmatten, Du sang, pp. 529â537; François Cojonnex, Un Vaudois à la tête dâun régiment bernois: Charles de Chandieu (1658â1728) (Pully, 2006).
Jasmina Cornut, âParenté dans lâélite valaisanne des Lumières: la famille de Courten, entre stratégies, solidarité et amour,â Vallesia 68 (2013), 205â335, pp. 286â295.
Among others: Rita Binz-Wohlhauser, âNetzwerke der militärischen Karriereplanung,â in Zwischen Glanz und Elend: Städtische Eliten in Freiburg im Ãchtland (18. Jahrhundert) (Zurich, 2014), p. 162â167; Gally-de Riedmatten, âLa carrière, b. La force du reseau,â in Du sang contre de lâor, pp. 704â719; Marc Höchner, âFamilienökonomie,â in Selbstzeugnisse von Schweizer Söldneroffizieren im 18. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 2015), pp. 155â167; Rogger, âKompaniewirtschaftâ.
Among others, we can cite the following works by Nathalie Büsser: âDrängende Geschäfteâ; idem, ââDie Frau Hauptmanninâ als Schaltstelle für Rekrutenwerbungen, Geldtransfer und Informationsaustausch: Geschäftliche Tätigkeiten weiblicher Angehöriger der Zuger Zurlauben im familieneigenen Solddienstunternehmen um 1700,â in Dienstleistungen: Expansion und Transformation des âdritten Sektorsâ (15â20. Jahrhundert), eds. Hans-Jörg Gilomen, Margrit Müller, and Laurent Tissot (Zurich, 2007), 143â153; or idem, âMilitärunternehmertum,â p. 121. As precursor, we can also cite the earlier article by Louiselle Gally-de Riedmatten, âLettres à lâabsent bien-aimé: Essai sur la correspondance de Jeanne Barbe de Preux à son mari, Gaspard Antoine Quartéry, capitaine en Sardaigne,â in Gente ferocissima: Mercenariat et société en Suisse (XVeâXIXe siècle), eds. Norbert Furrer et al. (Zurich/Lausanne, 1997), 41â59.
Jasmina Cornut, âImplications féminines dans lâentrepreneuriat militaire familial en Suisse romande (XVIIeâXVIIIe siècles),â Genre & Histoire 19 (2017). Available at http://journals.openedition.org/genrehistoire/2670. Accessed 10 November 2021; Philippe Rogger, âMilitärunternehmertum und Verflechtung: Auf den archivalischen Spuren der Salisâ (unpublished paper presented at the Rätisches Museum in Chur, 22 October 2019).
In the 18th century, these three territories had different religions and different statuses. Whereas Fribourg was a canton since 1481 and remained Catholic after the Reformation, Valais, although likewise Catholic (Republic of the Seven Tithings with its subject territories like the Lower Valais) was an allied territory of the old Confederation that would only become a canton in 1815. As for the Pays de Vaud, it was ruled by Bern, which imposed the Protestant faith after conquering the territory in 1536. Vaud became a canton in 1803.
Sandro Guzzi-Heeb, âMère aimée, mère domestiquée? Mères valaisannes du XVIIIe siècle et leurs fonctions sociales,â Micrologus: Natura, scienze e società medievali: La Madre â The Mother 17 (2009), 437â462, p. 445. We will return to the transformations undergone by modern kinship in greater detail in the section on âNetworks of Family Support for Military Careersâ. See the works by David Sabean, Simon Teuscher, and Sandro Guzzi-Heeb cited in notes 68, 69, and 70.
The present contribution derives from a thesis chapter: Jasmina Cornut, Femmes dâofficiers militaires en Suisse romande: implications, enjeux et stratégies de lâabsence, XVIIeâXIXe siècles (unpublished PhD diss., University of Lausanne, October 2023). The treatment of the topic is based on sources found in the family collections held by the Valais public archives (Archives de lâÃtat du Valais [AEV]) in Sion, the Vaud cantonal archives in Lausanne [ACV], and the cantonal and university libraries of Lausanne [BCU] and Fribourg [BCUF].
Louiselle Gally-de Riedmatten notes several examples of godfathers or godmothers who probably encouraged or even propelled the career of their godson in the Courten regiment. See Gally-de Riedmatten, Du sang contre de lâor, pp. 710â711.
Janine Fayard Duchêne, âDu val dâAnniviers à Sion: La famille de Torrenté des origines à nos jours,â Vallesia 61 (2006), 1â299, pp. 105â106.
Ghislain de Diesbach, âUn esprit de famille,â in Les gardes suisses et leurs familles aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles en région parisienne, ed. Société historique de Rueil-Malmaison (Rueil-Malmaison, 1989), 39â43, p. 39.
Mathieu Marraud, La noblesse de Paris au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 2000), p. 234.
AEV, Fonds Augustin de Riedmatten II, 7, Correspondance officielle: Lettres de remerciement, recommandation, sollicitations, etc. adressées à Augustin de Riedmatten (1828â1867).
Eugène-Arnold Gard (1776â1854), âsurgeon-major in the Swiss federal contingent, asks in 1826 for a place in the French service in the 3rd Swiss [regiment], knight of the royal order of Spainâ in Jacques Schalbetter, âLe Régiment valaisan au service de lâEspagne, 1796â1808,â Annales valaisannes 15:3 (1969), 283â369, p. 358 and Jean-Joseph Chapelet (1802â71) a former lieutenant in the French service who would have a political career in St-Maurice: notably, as a municipal councillor and then president of St-Maurice in 1847, see Albert de Wollf, Le portrait valaisan (n.p., 1957), p. 274.
AEV, Fonds Augustin de Riedmatten II, 7/1/14, Lettre dâAnne Gard à Augustin de Riedmatten, St-Maurice, 16 January 1850: âMonsieur le Colonel. Quoique je nâaie pas lâhonneur dâêtre connue de vous, je mâappuie du titre de belle-sÅur de Monsieur le Major Meinrad de Werra avec qui vous avez servi en France et pour lequel ma sÅur, sa veuve, me dit quâil avait beaucoup dâaffection pour vous; à ce titre Monsieur le Colonel jâose prendre la liberté de vous présenter la requête que ma sollicitude de mère, pour un fils sans état, et dont notre fortune ne nous permet pas de garder auprès de nous, sans moyen de gagner sa vie. Je viens donc, Monsieur le Colonel, vous demander votre protection; sâil y avait une place vacante dans votre régiment, mon fils a servi avec honneur dans le Sonderbund, ses principes sont très conservateurs, ces jeunes Messieurs qui sont au service de Naples lui rendront justice à cet égard. Jâespère Monsieur le Colonel que vous ne rejetterez pas la prière dâune pauvre mère et de sa famille qui vous bénira dans tous les instants de sa vie si par votre protection mon fils peut trouver à Naples, un état que lâon cherche en vain en Valais. Lâespérance dâune réponse favorable soulagera mon cÅur, et je prie Dieu de vous protéger toujours. Agréez, Monsieur le Colonel, lâhommage du profond respect avec lequel jâai lâhonneur dâêtre Anne Gard, née de la Pierre. St-Maurice, le 16 janvier 1850â (spelling and punctuation modernised and corrected here and in other French original citations in the footnotes, apart from the capitalisation in some mentions of military ranks).
This is made clear by our analysis of the solicitation letters addressed to the lieutenant-colonel and then colonel in the English service, Eugène de Courten, who was from Valais, see Cornut, âParenté dans lâélite valaisanne des Lumières,â p. 293.
The Sonderbund was an alliance that, in 1845, brought together seven conservative, Catholic Swiss cantons aiming to safeguard the Catholic religion and cantonal sovereignty and rejecting the idea of a federal state. The radicals, who had a majority in the Diet in 1847, decided to dissolve the Sonderbund. This led to a civil war between federal troops and Catholic conservatives. Valais thus mobilised to defend the Sonderbund, even though the population was divided between conservatives and radicals. The conservative cantons would be defeated, see René Roca, âSonderbund,â 2012, in DHS. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/017241/2012-12-20/#HVerslaguerrecivile. Accessed 28 June 2020.
His brother, Frédéric Gard (1767â1848), was a well-known political figure in the canton. He held numerous positions: notably, the post of the châtelain de Bagnes (1815â18), that of president of the Tithings (1807â10) and delegate to the cantonal parliament or Grand Council. He âhelped to spread liberal ideas in the valley [of Bagnes]â. Frédéricâs son, Louis Gard (1799â1855), who was an officer in Naples for some time, a notary, a journalist, and a well-known chansonnier, took part in the brawl known as the Bastonnade de Martigny in 1833 on the liberal side and militated on behalf of the Jeune Suisse up to 1844. He expressed extremely virulent positions against the foreign service. See Pierre-Alain Putallaz, âLe service étranger vu à travers lâétude des enfants du grand bailli Michel Dufour: Louis, Pierre-Marie, Adrien, Marguerite, Casimir, Joseph, Frédéric et Pauline, dite aussi Henriette,â Vallesia 58 (2003), 1â230, pp. 137â138. See also Sandro Guzzi-Heeb, Passions alpines: Sexualité et pouvoirs dans les montagnes suisses (1700â1900) (Rennes, 2014), pp. 132, 148â150.
On her fatherâs side of the family, her father himself, Etienne-Louis Macognin de la Pierre (1731â93), had a successful career as officer in the Courten regiment in France, as did her three de la Pierre uncles. One of his brothers served in the Napoleonic armies. All of them were deceased at the time when Anne was requesting the place for her son. She was also, via her mother Marie-Françoise de Rivaz, the niece of the late Charles Emmanuel de Rivaz, who was in his day the grand bailli of Valais and came from one of the most important families of the Lower Valais. Note that one year later, in 1851, his nephew, Maurice-Charles Macognin de la Pierre, would enter into the service of Naples as a second lieutenant, see André Donnet, Charles Zimmermann, âEtienne-Louis Macognin de la Pierre (1731â1793), sa famille et ses constructions de Saint-Maurice,â Vallesia 14 (1959), 189â244.
A few years earlier, moreover, he had married Marie Joséphine, daughter of Jean-Didier Parvex, a notary and lieutenant commander of the advance guard of the Jeune Suisse, who was killed in the Battle of Trient by the conservatives of the Vieille Suisse. See Joseph-Nicolas Hubert, âPrécis historique des événements dâEntremont arrivés en mai 1844,â Vallesia 24 (1969), 1â94, pp. 51, 92.
My genealogical research did not allow me to find the marriage or kinship ties between the Chapelet and the Stockalper families that Adèle mentions. It should be noted that it was not until 1866 that one of Adèleâs daughters will marry Joseph von Stockalper (1826â99).
AEV, Fonds Augustin de Riedmatten II, 7/1/25, Lettre dâAdèle Chapelet à Augustin de Riedmatten, St-Maurice, 11 September 1851.
Marie-Claude Schöpfer Pfaffen, âStockalper, Stockalper de la Tour,â 2012, in DHS. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/023600/2012-05-29/. Accessed 9 March 2020.
AEV, Fonds Augustin de Riedmatten II, 2/1/20, Lettre dâAdrien de Riedmatten à Augustin de Riedmatten, Sion, 8 September 1849.
AEV, Fonds Augustin de Riedmatten II, 7/1/21, Lettre dâAdrien de Riedmatten à Augustin de Riedmatten, Sion, 25 March 1851.
Cornut, âParenté dans lâélite valaisanne des Lumièresâ, pp. 291, 302.
AEV, Fonds Augustin de Riedmatten II, 7/1/21, Lettre dâAdrien de Riedmatten à Augustin de Riedmatten, Sion, 25 March 1851.
AEV, Fonds Augustin de Riedmatten II, 2/1/22, Lettre de Joséphine de Roten à Augustin de Riedmatten, Sion, 29 April 1851: âMonsieur le Colonel. Monsieur de Riedmatten votre cher oncle mâayant fait part de votre honorée et bienveillante réponse à la lettre quâil a eu lâhonneur de vous écrire pour vous recommander mon fils ainé. Je viens vous en témoigner ma reconnaissance, ainsi que pour toutes les choses obligeantes dont vous mâhonorez et ma famille de même. [â¦] Jâose donc, Monsieur le Colonel vous prier de bien vouloir vous intéresser à sa nomination et veiller sur lui lorsquâil mâaura quitté. Je le recommande à votre sollicitude toute paternelle dont vous honorez tous ceux qui vous entourent. Jâai lieu de croire que vous nâaurez jamais à vous repentir et que vous trouverez dans mon fils la reconnaissance qui vous est due à si juste titreâ.
Anne-Lise Head-König, âIntroduction: Les femmes dans la société urbaine: Culture, politique, économie,â in Frauen in der Stadt: Les femmes dans la ville, eds. Anne-Lise Head-König, Albert Tanner (Zurich, 1993), 7â22, p. 12.
[Catherine Perregaux née de Watteville], âMémoire de Madame Perregaux née de Wattewille, présenté en 1714 à Monsieur le Comte du Luc, ambassadeur de France en Suisse,â Archiv des Historischen Vereins des Kantons Bern 6 (1867), 71â129, p. 93: âQue quant au but que je mâétais proposé, câétait celui de recommander mon fils unique aux bontés du roi au service duquel il serait dévoué comme lâavaient été deux de mes frères, morts dans les troupes de Sa Majesté; lâun étant lieutenant-colonel dans ses gardes suisses, et lâautre capitaine dans le même corps, et que mon fils, ainsi que moi, nous nâavions pas moins de courage et dâenvie de servir utilement un aussi grand roi.â
Mathieu Marraud speaks of them, however: âApart from the affirmation of persistent clientelistic relationships, apart from broad family cohesiveness, the examination of these practices makes clear the increased role of women. More than intermediaries, the latter in fact constituted active links around which the menâs careers developed. It is very often thanks to them that higher ranks were obtained. In the absence of the spouses, who are required to join their regiment from June to September, it was up to the wives to intercede and intervene on their behalf with the competent ministers,â in Marraud, La noblesse, pp. 233â234.
Marc-Marie de Bombelles, Journal, 1 (Geneva, 1978), p. 231, quoted in ibid, p. 234: âIl nâest pas vraisemblable que la promotion générale paraisse avant lâautomne, parce quâen la publiant trop tôt, on priverait dans le temps des manÅuvres et des revues un grand nombre de régiments dont les chefs seront faits officiers généraux. Cependant les mères, les femmes, les sÅurs sont déjà en mouvement pour solliciter, et les ministères voient soixante personnes par jourâ.
See Gally-de Riedmatten, Du sang contre de lâor, pp. 578â579.
See Gally-de Riedmatten, Du sang contre de lâor, p. 581.
Perhaps Antoine Hyacinthe Macognin de la Pierre (1735â84), captain of the Lavallaz company.
AEV, Fonds dâOdet 1 6/6/1, Lettre de Julie dâOdet à son époux Louis, St-Maurice, 7 July 1777: âJâai été bien tourmentée [â¦] depuis 8 jours, je vais te conter cette histoire: Mme Ignace a écrit au cousin du Fay que lâon travaillait à faire avoir la [barré: compag] retraite à M. de la Pierre, aussitôt, le cousin sans mâen rien dire a travaillé auprès de son oncle pour te faire avoir cette commission, il en a parlé à la maman [Julienne dâOdet] qui lui a dit quâelle donnerait bien cent pistoles pour te la faire avoir. Le cousin montait à Sion et en a parlé à son oncle qui nâa point voulu dâargent et qui [barré: lui] a répondu quâil était bien fâché quâon ne lui en eu pas parlé plus tôt, que sa sÅur lui avait demandé cette place pour son fils mais quâil ne lui avait pas encore promise et quâil voudrait pouvoir arranger les choses pour te la donner mais quâil voudrait voir la capitulation avant que de se décider. Le cousin lui a promis de la lui envoyer et à son retour, il a conseillé à la maman de lui écrire et que je ferais le double de la lettre mais quâelle écrirait de sa main, après le départ du cousin du Fay.â
It is difficult to know whether Madame dâOdet is referring to a sort of bribe or to the 1,000 écus that all captains of the contingent are supposed to possess: an old requirement that the Valais Tithings reestablish in 1767 according to Gally-de Riedmatten, Du sang contre de lâor, p. 579.
Jean Steinauer, Patriciens, fromagers, mercenaires: Histoire de lâémigration fribourgeoise, XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle (Neuchâtel, 2017), p. 169.
AEV, Fonds dâOdet 2, P 153, Testament de Jean Gaspard dâOdet, 22 January 1750.
It should be noted that Julienne dâOdet had been âmortally afflictedâ by the resignation from the foreign service of her eldest son Hyacinthe in the same year, 1777, which explains why she was now counting so much on her son Louis. See AEV, Fonds dâOdet 1 6/6/1, Lettre de Julie dâOdet à son époux Louis, St-Maurice, 7 July 1777.
AEV, Fonds dâOdet 2, P 233, Copies de lettres patentes datée de Versailles le 9 mai 1784, in Pierre Alain Putallaz, Eugénie de Treytorrens et Charles dâOdet: Etude de leur correspondance inédite (1812â1817) (Lausanne, 1985), p. 35.
His brother Hyacinthe left the service in that same year, 1777, and his cousins Dufay, Devantéry and de Nucé had either subordinate ranks or captain positions, mostly by commission.
Louiselle Gally-de Riedmatten has provided a fine-grained analysis of the difficulties faced by officers from the Lower Valais in making a career in the regiment vis-Ã -vis officers from the Upper Valais oligarchy who wanted to preserve their hold on the higher-ranking officer positions and who were largely supported by the Diet in the last third of the 18th century, in Gally-de Riedmatten, Du sang contre de lâor, pp. 578â587.
Danièle Tosato-Rigo, âVaud. 3.2. Le régime bernois (1536â1798),â 2017, in DHS. Available at https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/007395/2017-05-30/. Accessed 6 March 2020.
Marianne Stubenvoll, âPatron bernois, client vaudois au service étranger,â in Gente ferocissima: Mercenariat et société en Suisse (XVeâXIXe siècle), eds. Norbert Furrer et al. (Zurich/Lausanne 1997), 61â73, p. 66.
ACV, Fonds P. de Loës 55, n.p., n.d., partly quoted in Stubenvoll, âPatron bernois,â p. 72: âvotre cousin lâassesseur Deloës à écrit à mad[ame] sa sÅur à Neuchâtel pour vous faire recommander à mons[ieur] Monnin laquelle sâétant adressée à des personnes de distinction à ce sujet [â¦]. Elle vous fait bien des compliments et marque quâelle souhaiteroit avoir occasion à vous pouvoir faire plaisirâ.
Stubenvoll, âPatron bernois,â pp. 71â72.
Guy Le Comte, âLa guerre dans les Flandres vue par Guillaume de Willermin: Officier aux Gardes suisses â 1793â1795,â in De Nimègue à Java: les soldats suisses au service de la Hollande, XVIIeâXXe siècles, ed. Sébastien Rial (Morges-Pully, 2014), 127â140, p. 128.
Gabriel de Golowkin (1731â1800).
Friedrich May von Kiesen (1695â1776), major-general.
BCU, Fonds CO II/16/11/C, Lettre de David-Louis Constant dâHermenches à son épouse, Hellevoetsluis, 16 July [1762]: âJâai pensé ma chère amie que je ne vous ai pas expliqué assez clairement lâarrangement de ma compagnie et que tant pour lâédification peut-être de notre ami dâAubonne et pour votre propre satisfaction, il faut que vous ayez cela; après les démissions priées voici comme les officiers doivent se suivre:
Le Comte de Golowkin c[apitai]ne c[omman]dant
Mestral de Pampigny, premier l[ieute]nant
Wilhelm [Guillaume] Constant, second lieutenant, sans numéro jusquâà ce quâil ait lââge mais avec les gages.
- 3.La Pottrie, sous-lieutenant
- 4.Wettstein lâainé, les gages dâenseigne
Un enseigne à faire sans gages jusquâ a ce que Wilhelm [Guillaume] serve, alors M. May est engagé à donner 375 fl[orains] par an et la paie dâun homme fait ensemble 515 fl[orains]â.
David Louis (or Louis David) dâAubonne (1711â86).
BCU, Fonds CO II/16/11/B, Lettre de David-Louis Constant dâHermenches à son épouse Louise, The Hague, 16 July [1762]: âComprenez bien ceci et parlez-en avec dâAubonne suivant que vous le verrez bien intentionné; si vous voyez quâil soit pleinement de nos amis, dites-lui tout, même le cas de ne pas prendre la Pottrie dans sa compagnie parce que si je nâai pas la Pottrie je crois bien que je renoncerais à tout pour mon fils.â
Marie and Elisabeth dâAubonne lived in a property at Faublanc in Pully during the summer and at Rue du Bourg no. 29 in Lausanne in winter, according to Pierre Morren, La vie lausannoise au XVIIIe siècle dâaprès Jean Henri Polier de Vernand, lieutenant baillival (Geneva, 1970), p. 558.
BCU, Fonds CO II/16/11/B, Lettre de David-Louis Constant dâHermenches à son épouse Louise, Middachten, 7 September [1762].
David de Saussure, Baron de Bercher (1697â1765), officer in the French service, member of the Petit Conseil (Small Council) and treasurer of Lausanne, uncle of David-Louis Constant dâHermenches or his son Philippe de Saussure (1727â1804), last Baron de Bercher, cousin of Constant.
BCU, Fonds CO II/16/11/A, Lettre de David-Louis Constant dâHermenches à son épouse Louise, [n.p.], 16 November [1762].
Among others: David Warren Sabean, Kinship in Neckarhausen, 1700â1870 (Cambridge/New York, 1998); Sandro Guzzi-Heeb, Donne, uomini, parentela: Casati alpini nellâEuropa preindustriale (1650â1850) (Torino, 2007).
David Warren Sabean, Simon Teuscher, âKinship in Europe: A new Approach to Long-Term Development,â in Kinship in Europe: Approaches to Long-Term Development (1300â1900), eds. David Warren Sabean, Jon Mathieu, and Simon Teuscher (New York/Oxford, 2007), 1â32, p. 16.
Guzzi-Heeb, âMère aimée, mère domestiquée? Mères valaisannes,â p. 446.
Elisabeth Joris, âKinship and Gender: Property, Entreprise, and Politics,â in Kinship in Europe: Approaches to Long-Term Development (1300â1900), eds. David Warren Sabean, Jon Mathieu, and Simon Teuscher (New York/Oxford, 2007), 231â257, p. 242.
Brigitte Schnegg, âSoireen, Salons, Sozietäten. Geschlechtsspezifische Aspekte des Wandels städtischer Ãffentlichkeit im Ancien Regime am Beispiel Berns,â in Frauen in der Stadt: Les femmes dans la ville, eds. Anne-Lise Head-König, Albert Tanner (Zurich, 1993), 163â183, pp. 167â169.
The expression (âcourroie de transmissionâ in French) is used by Head-König, âIntroduction: Les femmes,â note 16, p. 21.
ACV, Fonds P Charrière de Sévery Ba 1469, Lettre de Catherine de Chandieu, à son époux Charles, [LâIsle], 3 October 1702: âMme de Lily et M. et Mme de Chamergis mâont rendu depuis peu une visite de deux jours et mâont prié de vous parler dâun petit de Lily que Mme sa mère voudroit fort que vous prissiez dans votre compagnie, il est dans celle de M. de la Pierre, câest un jeune garçon dâun bon naturel que vous nâauriez quâà recommander à lâun de vos officiers et lui donner tout pouvoir sur sa conduiteâ.
ACV, Fonds P Charrière de Sévery Ba 1471, Lettre de Catherine de Chandieu, à son époux Charles, [LâIsle], 14 May 1705.
ACV, Fonds P Loys 4352/7 Lettre de Benjamin de Chandieu à son épouse Françoise, Aire, 8 May 1744.
ACV, Fonds P Loys 4352/7, Lettre de Benjamin de Chandieu à son épouse Françoise, Au Camps sous Courtray, 27 June 1744.
See Cornut, âImplicationsâ.
ACV, Fonds P Charrière de Sévery Ba 2497, Lettre dâAngélique Henriette de Chandieu-Villars à sa belle-sÅur Angletine de Chandieu-Villars, Geneva, 2 March 1748.
Joris, âKinship and Gender,â p. 242.
Marc Höchner, âAu service de Sa Majesté: La famille Castella sous les ordres de princes étrangers,â in Une famille fribourgeoise étoilée: les Castella, eds. Romain Jurot et al. (Fribourg, 2012), 41â51, p. 45.
Morren, La vie lausannoise au XVIIIe siècle, pp. 559â561.
Morren, La vie lausannoise au XVIIIe siècle, pp. 561â562.
AEV, Fonds de Courten, B 10/5/17, Lettre de Charles de Preux au colonel Ignace Antoine Pancrace de Courten, Saintes, 1 November 1785.
Cornut, Femmes dâofficiers militaires en Suisse romande, see chapter 4 âAdministrer le patrimoineâ.
ACV, Fonds P Joffrey 83, Brouillon de lettre de Louise de Joffrey née Mestral à un âMonsieur,â non nommé, [n.p.], [n.d.].
ACV, Fonds P Joffrey 83, Lettre de Louise de Joffrey née Mestral à un parent, Vevey, 24 May 1782.
ACV, Fonds P Joffrey 83, Quittance passée entre Christophe de Diesbach et Madame de Joffrey, Vevey, 2 July 1789.
ACV, Fonds P Joffrey 83, Traité de mariage entre Christophe Théophile de Diesbach et Elisabeth Sigismonde Henriette de Joffrey, Vevey, 29 July 1779.
ACV, Fonds P Joffrey 83, Ãtat des dettes du capitaine Christophe de Diesbach à Berne, [n.p.,], [n.d.,] and Attestation de dette de Christophe de Diesbach, capitaine au régiment suisse dâErnest envers Monsieur de Montet, capitaine audit régiment, Vevey, 6 November 1783.
Büsser, âMilitärunternehmertum,â p. 79; Anne-Lise Head-König, âRéseaux familiaux, clientélisme, patronage et confession en pays de montagne: Le pays de Glaris, XVIeâXVIIIe siècles,â in Famille, parenté, réseaux en Occident (XVIIeâXXe siècles), eds. Anne-Lise Head-König et al. (Geneva, 2001), 181â194, pp. 186â187.
ACV, Fonds P Joffrey 83, Compte de Louise de Joffrey, [n.p.], [n.d.] and ibid., âCompte fourni à Madame de Diesbach de la Cour au Chantre par le Major Cuenod de Martignier de lâemploy des argents quâil a avancé a sa requisittion pr faire une recrue pr la compagnie de son epoux suivant le compte quâil sâen est fait rendre,â Corsier, 22 March 1783.
ACV, Fonds P Joffrey 83, Attestation dâune dette de 1600 frs de Louise de Joffrey envers son cousin Monsieur de Denezy, Vevey, April 1790.
Nathalie Büsser, âKlare Linien und komplexe Geflechte, Verwandtschaftsorganisation und Soldgeschäft in der Eidgenossenschaft (17â18. Jahrhundert),â in Soldgeschäfte, Klientelismus, Korruption in der Frühen Neuzeit: Zum Soldunternehmertum der Familie Zurlauben im schweizerischen und europäischen Kontext, eds. Kaspar von Greyerz, André Holenstein, and Andreas Würgler (Göttingen, 2018), 185â210, p. 200.
Hermann Suter, Innerschweizerisches Militär-Unternehmertum im 18. Jahrhundert (Zurich, 1971), quoted in idem.
Rogger, âKompaniewirtschaft,â p. 228.
Cornut, âImplicationsâ.
Stubenvoll, âPatron bernois,â p. 69.
BCUF, Fonds Castella A-651, Livre de raison dâElisabeth Castella de Delley et de son fils Nicolas-Albert, [n.p.], 1730â1735.
Anne-Lise Head-König, Liliane Mottu-Weber, Femmes et discriminations en Suisse: Le poids de lâhistoire, XVIe-début XXe siècle (droit, éducation, économie, justice) (Geneva, 1999), p. 8.
Rita Binz-Wohlhauser, âLa famille Castella: Points communs et différences,â in Une famille fribourgeoise étoilée: Les Castella, eds. Romain Jurot et al. (Fribourg, 2012), 10â27, p. 19.
Walter Bührer, Der Zürcher Solddienst des 18. Jahrhunderts: Sozial- und wirtschaftsgeschichtliche Aspekte (Bern, 1977), p. 125, quoted in Höchner, Selbstzeugnisse von Schweizer Söldneroffizieren, p. 60.
Henry, âService étranger,â p. 9.
Pierre de Castella de Delley, Temps révolus 1300â2006: Généalogie de la famille Castella (Fribourg, 2013), p. 108.
Suter, Innerschweizerisches Militär-Unternehmertum, p. 88, quoted in Höchner, Selbstzeugnisse von Schweizer Söldneroffizieren, p. 158.
Head-König, âLâascension des entrepreneurs militaires,â p. 80.
See, in particular, Sandro Guzzi-Heeb, âMarie Julienne de Nucé, die Politik und die Religion: Elemente einer weiblichen Machtstrategie,â Traverse: Revue dâhistoire 3 (2001), 132â140.
Head-König, âIntroduction: Les femmes,â note 16, p. 21.
Büsser, ââDie Frau Hauptmanninâ,â p. 150.