Figures
2.1.1-1 Crop development for faba bean, grain pea, blue or narrow-leaved and white sweet lupin and soybean 2009 to 2023 in Germany (in 1,000 ha) 5
2.1.1-2 Nitrogen fixation of grain legumes as a function of yield (organic farming) 7
2.1.2-1 Grain peas (Photo: © UFOP/D. Schneider) 7
2.1.2-2 Faba beans (Photo: © UFOP/D. Schneider) 9
2.1.2-3 Sweet lupins (Photo: © UFOP/M. Runge) 12
2.1.2-4 Soybeans (Photo: © UFOP/D. Schneider) 14
2.3.1-1 Chemical structures of quinozidine alkaloids 19
2.3.2-1 Chemical structure of phytate 20
2.3.3-1 Chemical structures of vicine and convicine 22
2.3.4-1 Chemical structures of isoflavones 23
2.3.5-1 Chemical structure of some oligosaccharides 25
2.3.6-1 Chemical structure of tannic acid 26
2.4-1 Young peas with pods 34
2.4-2 White-flowered peas 34
2.4.1.1-1 Pea pod of white-flowered peas 36
2.4.1.1-2 Pea pod with seeds of white-flowered peas 36
2.4.1.1-3 Seeds of white-flowered peas 36
2.4.2-1 Seeds of white-flowered peas 42
2.4-3-1 Grain peas harvest 46
2.5-1 Faba beans 72
2.5-2 Colour-flowered faba bean “Trumpet” 72
2.5.1.1-1 Faba bean seeds (Photo: © Ch. Ziron) 73
2.6-1 L. angustifolius, sprouting (Photo: © DSV) 98
2.6-2 L. angustifolius, flowering (Photo: © DSV) 98
2.6-3 White-flowered Lupin “Frieda” 98
2.6-4 Lupin plant with pods 98
2.6.1-1 Lupin pod 100
2.6.1-2 Lupin pod, open (Photo: © DSV) 100
2.7.1-2 Soybeans; (Photo: © UFOP/D. Schneider) 132
2.8-1 Vetches (flowering plants); (Photo: © K.-P. Wilbois) 154
2.8.1-1 Vetches (grains); (Photo: © K.-P. Wilbois) 156
2.9.1-1 Production processes of soy protein concentrate 163
2.9.1-2 Production process of soy protein isolate 163
2.9.1-3 Sample production process for grain pea and faba bean protein concentrates and isolates 167
2.9.2-1 Effects of dietary fibre on the welfare and animal health of monogastric animals 178
3.1.1-1 Seed of red clover as an example for “small-grain legumes” (Photo: © A. Wosnitza, LfL Bayern) 187
3.1.1-2 Share of clover, lucerne and their mixtures with grasses in arable land in Germany increases with continental influence (2003 and 2017) 189
3.1.1-3 Share of the federal states in the cultivation of small-grain legumes (e.g. clover, lucerne) and their mixtures from 80% legumes in 2022 189
3.2.2-1 Harvesting lucerne plant tips by engine „Top cut collect“ (Photo: © J. Maxa, LfL Bayern) 199
3.2.2-2 Harvesting lucerne plant tips by engine „BB-Umwelttechnik“ (Photo: © J. Maxa, LfL Bayern) 199
3.2.2-3 Green protein extraction – process overview 203
Tables
2.1.1-1 Cultivation of grain legumes in the EU 2023 (in 1,000 ha) 6
2.3.2-1 Phytic acid in selected grain legumes 21
2.3.3-1 Saponin content of some legume species (g/kg DM) 22
2.3.4-1 Isoflavone content of some legume species 24
2.3.5-1 α-Galactosides in legume seeds (g/100 g) 25
2.3.6-1 Tannin content in various legume species 27
2.3.7-1 Haemagglutinating effects in various legume species (units/mg DM) 29
2.3.7-2 Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA, mg TI/g CP) in various legume species 30
2.3.8-1 Overview of antinutritional factors (ANF) in grain legumes 30
2.4.1.1-1 Nutrients (g/kg DM) of grain peas (white- and colour-flowered) 35
2.4.1.1-2 Ruminal starch degradation of peas (Pisum sativum L.) 37
2.4.1.1-3 Carbohydrate content (g/kg DM) of white-flowered peas (Pisum sativum L.) 37
2.4.1.1-4 Starch and fibre content (g/kg DM) in white- and colour-flowered peas (x̅ ± SEM of 7 white- and 2 colour-flowered cultivars) 38
2.4.1.1-5 Composition and content (g/kg DM) of non-starch polysaccharides in white- and colour-flowered peas (x̅ ± SEM of 7 white- and 2 colour-flowered cultivars) 39
2.4.1.1-6 Composition and content (g/kg DM) of oligosaccharides in white- and colour-flowered peas (x̅ ± SEM of 7 white- and 2 colour-flowered cultivars) 39
2.4.1.1-7 Variation of ANF content in peas (% DM) in three cultivars and three growing locations 40
2.4.1.2-1 Average mineral content (in DM) of peas 41
2.4.1.2-2 Vitamin content of white-flowered peas 42
2.4.2.1-1 Effects of ensiling and toasting of peas on protein solubility 43
2.4.2.1-2 Effect of treatment of peas on N excretion 44
2.4.2.1-3 Amino acid content and digestibility for pigs and poultry of white-flowered peas 44
2.4.2.1-4 Winter and summer peas: apparent digestibility and digestibility coefficient (DC in % of ME) in pig fattening 45
2.4.3.1-1 Effects of toasted peas on milk yield and milk composition 47
2.4.3.1-2 Recommendations for the inclusion of peas in cattle feed 48
2.4.3.1-3 Recommendations for the inclusion of peas in feed for small ruminants 48
2.4.3.2-1 Feeding trials to determine the possible integration of peas in feed for pig fattening 50
2.4.3.2-2 Recommendations for the inclusion of white-flowered peas (Pisum sativum L.) in compound feed for pigs (% of feed) 51
2.4.3.3-1 Recommendations for the inclusion (%) of peas (Pisum sativum L.) in compound feed for broiler and layer 53
2.4.3.3-2 Recommendations for the inclusion (%) of peas (Pisum sativum L.) in turkey compound feed 53
2.4.3.4-1 Recommendations for the inclusion of peas (Pisum sativum L.) in equine compound feed 54
2.4.3.5-1 Executive summary of studies testing pea ingredients in aquafeeds for various species 55
2.5.1.1-1 Nutrients (g/kg) of white- and colour-flowered faba beans (Vicia faba L.) 73
2.5.1.1-2 Carbohydrate content (g/kg DM) in faba beans (Vicia faba L.) 74
2.5.1.1-3 Ruminal starch degradation in faba beans (Vicia faba L.) compared to wheat starch 74
2.5.1.1-4 Content and chemical composition of oligosaccharides and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) in faba beans (Vicia faba L.) (g/kg DM) 75
2.5.1.1-5 Antinutritive compounds (g/kg) of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) seed 76
2.5.1.1-6 ANF concentration in faba beans (Vicia faba L.) with low and high tannin content 76
2.5.1.2-1 Average mineral content (in DM) of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) 78
2.5.1.2-2 Vitamin content of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) 78
2.5.2.1-1 Amino acid (AA) content of white- and colour-flowered faba beans (Vicia faba L.) 79
2.5.2.1-2 Amino acid digestibility (%) for pigs and poultry of white- and colour-flowered faba beans (Vicia faba L.) 80
2.5.3.1-1 Protein parameters of two different faba bean (Vicia faba L.) cultivars (in vitro analysis) 81
2.5.3.1-2 Rumen fermentation characteristics and milk composition after feeding faba beans (Vicia faba) with low or high tannin content 82
2.5.3.1-3 Recommendations for the inclusion of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) in cattle feed 83
2.5.3.1-4 Recommendations for the inclusion of faba beans in feed for small ruminants 84
2.5.3.2-1 Recommended feeding levels for faba beans (Vicia faba L.) of unknown origin for pigs (% of diet) 85
2.5.3.3-1 Recommendations for the inclusion of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) of unknown origin in poultry feed (% of diet) 87
2.5.3.5-1 Recommended inclusion levels of faba beans in feed mixtures of different fish species 90
2.6.1.1-1 Ingredients (g/kg DM) in narrow-leafed (L. angustifolius), white- (L. albus) and yellow- (L. luteus) flowered sweet lupins 99
2.6.1.1-2 Carbohydrate level (g/kg DM) in L. angustifolius and L. albus 101
2.6.1.1-3 Quinolizidine alkaloids (µg/g) in lupin seeds 102
2.6.1.2-1 Average mineral content (per kg DM) of lupin varieties 103
2.6.1.2-2 Vitamin content of lupin varieties and cultivars (mg/100g DM) 104
2.6.2.1-1 Amino acid (AA) content (g/kg DM) of lupin varieties (L. angustifolius, L. luteus, L. albus) and soybean (Glycine max) of European origin 105
2.6.2.1-2 Precaecal digestibility coefficient (%) for pigs and poultry of lupin varieties (L. angustifolius, L. luteus, L. albus) and soybean (Glycine max) of European origin 105
2.6.3.1-1 Characteristics of heat treated L. angustifolius and untreated rapeseed meal (RES) and soybean meal (SES) 108
2.6.3.1-2 Efficiency of microbial protein synthesis (MP) of a total mixed ration (TMR) with heat treated L. angustifolius (L.A.), L. angustifolius and rapeseed meal (L.A./RES) and rapeseed meal-soybean meal (RES/SES) 108
2.6.3.1-3 Recommendations for the inclusion of sweet lupins in cattle feed (all lupin varieties) 109
2.6.3.1-4 Recommendations for the inclusion of sweet lupins of unknown cultivar in feed for small ruminants 110
2.6.3.2-1 Recommendations for feeding lupins of unknown cultivar to pigs (% of diet) 111
2.6.3.3-1 Recommended inclusion of sweet lupins of unknown variety and cultivar in poultry feed (% of diet) 113
2.6.3.5-1 Executive summary of studies testing sweet lupins ingredients in aquafeeds for various species 119
2.7.1-1 Ingredients of Soybeans (European cultivation) 131
2.7.1-2 Fatty acid pattern of vegetable oils (mean proportions in %) 132
2.7.1-3 Relevant ingredients and characteristic values for the heat treatment of soya products from European cultivation compared to soybean meal (overseas) (in g/kg or %) 134
2.7.2-1 Amino acid content and digestibility (pigs, poultry) of soybeans (European cultivation) 135
2.7.3-1 Recommendations for the use of soybeans and soybean cake in cattle and sheep feeding (in kg/animal/day or mixture proportion in % of the concentrate mixture) 137
2.7.3-2 Recommendations for the use of soybeans and soybean cake in pig feed (maximum proportions for complete feed mixtures, figures in %) 138
2.7.3-3 Recommendations for the use of soybeans and soybean cake in poultry feed (maximum mixture proportions for complete feed mixtures, figures in %) 138
2.7.3-4 Studies with recommended inclusion levels of soybeans in feeds for different fish and shrimp species 141
2.8.1-1 Ingredients (g/kg) of lentils, chickpeas and vetches (fodder vetches) 155
2.8.2-1 Amino acid contents (g/kg) of lentils, chickpeas and vetches (fodder vetches) 157
2.8.3-1 Recommendations for the use of lentils, chickpeas and vetches in pig feed (maximum mixture proportions for complete feed mixtures, figures in %) 158
2.8.3-2 Recommendations for the use of seed vetches in poultry feed (maximum mixture proportions for complete feed mixtures, figures in %) 159
2.8.3-3 Executive summary of studies testing vetch ingredients in aquafeeds for various species 160
2.9.1-1 Ingredients in soy protein concentrate (SPC) and soy protein isolate (SPI), compared to soybean meal (SBM) (g/kg; NRC, 1998) 164
2.9.1-2 Mineral content of soybean concentrate (SPC) and isolate (SPI), compared to soybean meal (SBM) (NRC, 1998) 164
2.9.1-3 Comparison of protein content and amino acid composition (% in DM) of various soybean products (NRC 1998) 165
2.9.1-4 CP content and amino acid digestibility for pigs (%) of various soybean products (NRC 1998) 166
2.9.1-5 Chemical composition of pea protein and of faba bean protein concentrate 168
2.9.1-6 Chemical composition (%) and properties (%) of pea (PPI) and soy protein isolates (SPI) after different processing procedures 168
2.9.1-7 Chemical composition (g/kg) of pea (Pisum sativum L.) and faba bean (Vicia faba L.) isolates (PPI and FBI, respectively) 169
2.9.1-8 Mineral content (g/kg) of pea protein concentrate (PPC), processed from white-flowered peas 170
2.9.1-9 CP (g/kg) and amino acid composition (gAA/16gN) of pea (P) and faba bean (FB) protein concentrate (PC) and protein isolate (PI) 171
2.9.1-10 Effects of different levels of pea protein concentrate (PPC) in milk replacers on the digestibility of dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) 172
2.9.1-11 Effects of pea protein concentrate (PPC) on piglet growth and feed efficiency in two growing periods (I: 3–21 and II: 21–41 days after weening) 173
2.9.1-12 Effects of rising levels of pea protein isolate (PPI) on broiler performance 174
2.9.1-13 Effects of pea protein isolate (PPC) on broiler fattening 174
2.9.2-1 Ingredients and energy content of grain peas and the pea products made from them – pea hulls and pea protein concentrate – (data based on 88% DM) 175
2.9.2-2 Use of grain peas and pea products in the feeding trial with weaned piglets (figures in % in complete mixture feed) 180
2.9.2-3 Design of the study and mixture proportions (in %) of peas (P), pea protein concentrate (PPC) and pea hulls (PH) in the complete feed mixtures for broilers 181
3.1.1-1 Certified seed sales [t] of the most important small-grain legumes for forage, grassland and catch crops in Europe in 2021 188
3.2.1-1 Ingredients (g/kg DM) in lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), lucerne silage and lucerne leaves 197
3.2.2-2 Total yield (DM), content of leaves and CP (per cut) for products of lucerne and red clover (free field) for method 1–3 (means and standard deviation) 200
3.2.2-3 Average content of Lysine (Lys), Methionine (Met), Cysteine (Cys) und Threonine (Thr) for products of lucerne and red clover (free field) for method 1–3 (g /kg DM) 201
3.2.2-4 Average yield (DM), content of leaves and CP (per cut) for lucerne products (free field) for method 4 and 5 (means and standard deviation) 202
3.2.2-5 Average content of Lysine (Lys), Methionine (Met), Cysteine (Cys) and Threonine (Thr) for products of lucerne (free field) for method 4 and 5 (g/kg DM) 202
3.2.2-6 Distribution of DM and CP in the plant and throughout the juice extraction 203
3.3.1-1 Structure-dependent differences in the biological activity (sites of action in the animal organism) of selected saponins according Weindl et al. (2021) 208
3.3.1-2 Composition of selected saponins in dried lucerne leaves of different varieties (data in µg/g eq umbelliferone (LS means)) according Weindl et al. (2021) 209
3.3.1-3 Influence of development stage on the contents of selected saponins in dried lucerne leaves and stems of the variety “Plato” (in µg/g eq umbelliferone) according Weindl et al. (2021) 210
3.3.1-4 Results of saponin analysis of four lucerne products (> 50mg/kg eg umbelliferon) according Weindl et al. (2021) 211
3.4.1-1 Ingredients (g/kg) in lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), harvested at different stages 219
3.4.1-2 Ingredients (g/kg) in different silages, hay and cobs of lucerne 220
3.4.1-3 Content of minerals (g/kg DM) in lucerne, lucerne silage, lucerne hay and lucerne cobs 221
3.4.1-4 Content of amino acids (g/kg) in lucerne and lucerne cobs, harvested at different stages 223
3.4.1-5 Content of crude fiber (CF) and crude protein (CP); apparent total tract digestibility of organic matter (OMD) and crude protein (CPD) of different lucerne silages for growing pigs – literature overview 224
3.4.1-6 Studies on apparent precaecal digestibility (pcd) of crude protein and amino acids (%) of different lucerne silages for broilers 225
3.4.2-1 Ingredients (g/kg) of lucerne refined products 227
3.4.2-2 Content of minerals (g/kg DM) in lucerne leaves and lucerne tips 228
3.4.2-3 Content of amino acids (g/kg) in lucerne refined products 229
3.4.2-4 Crude protein content, apparent total tract digestibility of organic matter (OMD) and crude protein (CPD) of lucerne refined products for growing pigs – literature overview 230
3.4.2-5 Studies on digestibility of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (%) of lucerne and lucerne refined products (hot-air dried) for poultry 231
3.4.2-6 Recommendations for feeding lucerne refined products in poultry and pig production (content (%) in complete concentrate mixtures) 236
3.4.2-7 Studies testing lucerne refining products in aquafeeds for various species 238
3.5.1-1 Ingredients (g/kg) in red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), harvested at different stages 244
3.5.1-2 Ingredients (g/kg) in different silages and hay of red clover 245
3.5.1-3 Content of minerals (g/kg DM) in red clover, red clover silage and red clover hay 246
3.5.1-4 Content of amino acids (g/kg) in red clover, harvested at different stages 247
3.5.2-1 Ingredients (g/kg) of red clover, red clover leaves and red clover protein pastes 249
3.5.2-2 Content of minerals (g/kg DM) in red clover leaves 250
3.5.2-3 Content of amino acids (g/kg) in red clover leaves and red clover protein pastes 251
3.5.2-4 Studies on apparent precaecal digestibility (pcd) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (%) of red clover silage and red clover leaves for broilers 252
3.5.2-5 Studies testing red clover refining products in aquafeeds for various species 254