Illustrations and Tables
Illustrations
1.1
Hydraulic fracturing
2.1
Friedrich Bergius
2.2
Schematic representation of coal structure
2.3
Five-liter rotary autoclave developed by Bergius and his associates
2.4
Bergius high-pressure reactor
2.5
Flow diagram of continuous method of operation
2.6
Rheinau-Mannheim plant
2.7
Bergius home in Heidelberg
2.8
Franz Fischer (left), Hans Tropsch (right)
2.9
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Coal Research, Mülheim
2.10
F-T apparatus, aluminum block furnace, at the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft 1930
3.1
Matthias Pier
3.2
Liquid phase hydrogenation converters (reactors)
3.3
Vapor phase hydrogenation converters
3.4
Leuna plant 1927
3.5
Schematic diagram for liquid and vapor phase hydrogenation plant
3.6
Brabag IV Zeitz synthetic fuel plant (hydrogenation) after bombing May 1944
3.7
Wesseling plant 1953
3.8
Otto Roelen
3.9
F-T tube and plate 1 atmosphere converter
3.10
F-T tube and plate 1 atm converter
3.11
F-T concentric medium pressure (9–11 atm) double tube converter
3.12
Schematic diagram for F-T 1 atm and middle pressure synthetic fuel plant, Ruhrchemie, Sterkrade
3.13
Wilhelm Breitestein, Wilhelm Lohman, Fritz Häcklander at Mörs-Meerbeck plant (no date given for picture)
3.14
Cobalt catalyst reduction vessel at Ruhrchemie, Sterkrade
3.15
Bombed hydrogenation synthetic fuel plant (unidentified)
3.16
Bombed hydrogenation synthetic fuel plant (unidentified)
3.17
IG Farben plant near Auschwitz
4.1
Section of early type of converter made at the Fuel Research Station
4.2
Bergius continuous unit
4.3
Sir Harry McGowan (1874–1961)
4.4
General view of the Billingham plant
4.5
Control room (top), high pressure converters (bottom)
5.1
Guests at luncheon honoring General Hiroshi Ôshima, Ludwigshafen, 17 May 1943. From left to right facing: Matthias Pier BASF-IG Farben; Hermann Waibel, IG director, business manager, and trade export manager, IG Farben; Martin Müller Cunradi, director of Oppau Works, General Hiroshi Ôshima, ambassador to Germany; Hermann Schmitz, head of IG Farben; General Mitsuhiko Komatsu, military attaché to the Japanese embassy in Berlin
5.2
Cover of Luncheon announcement honoring General Ôshima
5.3
Proposed coal hydrogenation plant at Kinsei
6.1
The Athabasca tar sands in Alberta, Canada 1900–30
6.2
Sidney Ells (left), Karl Clark (right)
6.3
Alberta’s oil sands
6.4
Thomas E. Warren in 1938
6.5
Continuous liquid phase pilot plant 4 liter capacity. Left: Hydrogen compression system. Right: (1) Magnetic pump, (2) Condenser, (3) High-pressure receiver, (4) Reaction chamber
6.6
Blair Report 1951, cover
6.7
Canada Mines Branch, Booth Street, Ottawa, early 1950s
6.8
Pressure vessels originally designed for 1360 atm for vapor phase hydrogenation, Booth Street, Ottawa
7.1
First Bureau of Mines F-T apparatus 1928
7.2
James G. King, chief chemist of British Fuel Research Station (left) and Arno C. Fieldner in London 1924
7.3
Bureau of Mines diagram of Bergius-IG Farben coal hydrogenation process 1930s
7.4
US Bureau of Mines coal hydrogenation converter 1930s
7.5
Bureau of Mines truck equipped to run on synthetic gasoline produced from coal hydrogenation, 1941
7.6
Fischer-Tropsch Laboratory, Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh Testing Station 1946
7.7
Bruceton Synthetic Fuels Laboratories. Left to right on hilltop: Gas synthesis building, warehouse and administration, coal hydrogenation buildings
7.8
Bureau of Mines, Louisiana, Missouri, demonstration plants. Center: Original synthetic ammonia plant. Left: Coal hydrogenation and F-T demonstration plants
7.9
Coal hydrogenation converter stalls bracketed by thick concrete walls
7.10
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis
7.11
F-T demonstration plant. Left: The two tall cylinders are the vertical gasifiers
8.1
Synthol (synthetic oil) reactors at Sasol I
8.2
SRC-II process
8.3
H-coal process
8.4
Donor action in coal structure
8.5
Exxon donor solvent process
8.6
Keeling curve of CO2 atmospheric concentration, Mauna Loa record
Tables
1.1
International industrial-size synthetic fuel plants
2.1
Bergius process industrialization
3.1
Synthetic fuels in Germany 1911–45
3.2
Government-industry associations
3.3
IG Farben coal and tar hydrogenation
3.4
German coal hydrogenation plants 1927–45
3.5
German coal hydrogenation plants: Production
3.6
German Fischer-Tropsch plants
3.7
Converter design summaries
3.8
Summary of German petroleum availability from various sources at beginning of 1944
3.9
Synthetic fuels in Germany 1911–45
4.1
Standardized hydrogenation reaction conditions at Birmingham
4.2
Graham and Skinner’s experiments with catalytic effects
4.3
Output of gasoline at Billingham 1935–45
5.1
Japan’s petroleum production (metric tons) during the 1920s
5.2
Seven year plan
5.3
Government subsidies for construction of LTC plants
5.4
Government subsidies for all synthetic fuel produced
5.5
Purchase and retail price of synthetic oil
5.6
Subsidies to Imperial Fuel Development Company
5.7
Fushun oil shale production
5.8
LTC plants, not complete list
5.9
Fischer-Tropsch plants
5.10
Fushun production of gasoline by hydrogenation
5.11
Coal hydrogenation plants
6.1
Canadian production, imports, and exports of crude oil and natural gas
6.2
Canadian fuel production and reserves
7.1
Bureau of Mines synthetic fuel program, synthetic liquid fuels act
8.1
Government-industry scale-up of synthetic fuel programs
8.2
Joint government-industry synthetic fuel research-development
8.3
US regulations to reduce atmospheric pollution (acid rain)
8.4
United States government synthetic fuel financial support