1.1 Notre-Dame de Grâce, ca. 1340. Tempera on cedar panel (backed by a modern panel), 14 × 10 3/8 inches (35.5 × 26.5 cm). Cambrai, France, Cathedrale de Cambrai 14
1.2 Detail. Adriaen Dullaert (author), Geschiedenis van Scheut, after 1471, Brussels. Parchment, 300 × 226 mm. Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek (inv. no. Cod. Ser. Nov. 12779, fol. 31r) 17
1.3 Adriaen Dullaert (author), Geschiedenis van Scheut, after 1471, Brussels. Parchment, 300 × 226 mm. Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek (inv. no. Cod. Ser. Nov. 12779, fol. 3r) 22
1.4 Notre-Dame de Grâce. Photograph, 1946, by Paul Becker (Reproductions de Tableaux et Objets d’Art, Rue Joseph Vander Linden) 31
1.5 Notre-Dame de Grâce. Photograph by R.P. Van Humbeek, OSB (Abbaye du Mont-César) 31
1.6 Notre-Dame de Grâce 32
1.7 Hayne de Bruxelles (Netherlandish, active 1454/1455–59), Virgin and Child, ca. 1454–55. Oil on wood panel, 24 1/2 × 14 3/16 inches (62.23 × 36.04 cm). Kansas City, Missouri, The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art. Purchase: William Rockhill Nelson Trust (inv. no. 32-149) 34
1.8 Notre-Dame de Grâce, 15th century. Ms 44. Lille, Bibliothèque municipal de Lille 35
1.9 Rogier van der Weyden (Netherlandish, c.1399–1464), Virgin and Child, after 1454. Oil on panel, 12 5/8 × 9 inches (32.1 × 22.9 cm). Houston, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, The Edith A. and Percy S. Straus Collection (inv. no. 44.535) 42
1.10 Dieric Bouts (Netherlandish, Haarlem, active by 1457–died 1475), Virgin and Child, c.1455–1460. Oil on wood, 8 1/2 × 6 1/2 inches (21.6 × 16.5 cm). New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Theodore M. Davis nCollection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis, 1915 (inv. no. 30.95.280) 43
1.11 Rogier van der Weyden (Netherlandish, about 1400–1464), Saint Luke Drawing the Virgin, about 1435–40. Oil and tempera on panel, 54 1/8 × 43 5/8 inches (137.5 × 110.8 cm). Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Henry Lee Higginson, (inv no. 93.153) 47
1.12 Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553), Mariahilf, ca. 1525. Painting on wood, 85 × 60 cm. Dom St. Jakob, Innsbruck (inv. no. EZ 21, Gst. .405) 55
2.1 Gerard Leeu, Van Marien rosen cransken een suuerlic boexken, title page (9 Mar. 1484). 8°. Leiden, University Library, 1370 G 35, fol. [a]1r 65
2.2 Geertgen tot Sint-Jans, Glorification of the Virgin (1480–1490). Oil on panel, 27 × 21 cm (detail). Rotterdam, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen 84
2.3 Gerard Leeu, Rosarium Beatae Virginis Mariae, opening with the Nativity and Madonna lactans ([before 25 July] 1487). The Hague, Royal Library, 150 F 9, fols. a7v–a8r 87
2.4 Gerard Leeu, Corona mystica B.M.V., opening with first stone (topaz) (6 Oct. 1492). 8°. The Hague, Royal Library, 150 F 22, fols. [a]7v–[a]8r 90
2.5 Govaert Bac, Corona mystica B.M.V. [Dutch] Geestelijke croon van der maecht Marien, opening with ninth stone (agate) (24 Nov. 1493). 8°. The Hague, Royal Library, 150 F 25, fols. g2v–g3r 91
2.6 Gerard Leeu, Van de seven droefheden ofte weeden O.L.V., opening with the icon of the Mater dolorosa (14 July 1492). 8°. The Hague, Royal Library, 150 F 21, fols. a2v–a3r 95
2.7 Thierry Martens, Quodlibetica decisio de septem doloribus B. Mariae virginis, title page ([1496–1497]). 4°. Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Ink F–236, fol. 1r 101
3.1 Adriaen Collaert, Assumption of the Virgin, from the series, Virginis Mariae vita. Engraving, 8.6 × 6.5 cm. Private collection 114
3.2 Hieronymus Wierix, Virgin and Child Enthroned, from the series, Typus castitatis, engraving, 7.0 × 4.5 cm. London, British Museum 115
3.3 Adriaen Collaert after Philips Galle, Flowers, from Florilegium (1587–1589). Engraving, 26.4 × 17.6 cm. Sarah Campbell Blaffer Foundation, Houston 116
3.4 Adriaen Collaert after Philips Galle, Sponsus and Sponsa, 1587–1589, engraving, 26.4 × 17.6 cm, from Florilegium, New Hollstein (Collaert) 1563, Sarah Campbell Blaffer Foundation, Houston, 2014.7 117
3.5 Hieronymus Wierix, The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, engraving, 15.0 × 10.5 cm. New Hollstein 743, KBR, Brussels, S.I 39067 120
3.6 Hieronymus Wierix, The Virgin Mary Adoring the Infant Jesus, before 1607, engraving, 9.5 × 6.6 cm. New Hollstein 774, KBR, Brussels, S.IV 3910 121
3.7 Antoon II Wierix, The Virgin Mary Adoring the Infant Jesus, before 1604, engraving, 10.1 × 6.5 cm. New Hollstein 776, KBR, Brussels, S.I 39073 123
3.8 Unknown artist, Canticum Canticorum, ca. 1465, woodcut, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Xylogr. 32, 8v 125
3.9 Jan Sadeler after Maarten de Vos, Sponsa in the Bed of Solomon, 1590, engraving, 20.8 × 25.7 cm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum 126
3.10 Jan Wierix, The Virgin and Child in the Enclosed Garden, 1606, engraving, 27.2 × 30.9 cm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum 129
3.11 Theodoor Galle, Mater pulchrae dilectionis, imago 5 in Jan David, Pancarpivm Marianvm, Septemplici Titulorum serie distinctum: vt in B. Virginis odorem curramus, et Christvs formetur in nobis (Antwerp: Ex officina Plantiniana, Apud Ioannem Moretum, 1607), opp. p. 24. Private collection 132
3.12 Theodoor Galle, title page, Jan David, Pancarpivm Marianvm, Septemplici Titulorum serie distinctum: vt in B. Virginis odorem curramus, et Christvs formetur in nobis (Antwerp: Ex officina Plantiniana, Apud Ioannem Moretum, 1607). Private collection 135
4.1 Giorgio Vasari, Christ Carrying the Cross (1568–72). Oil on wood, 420 × 270 cm. Florence: Buonarroti Chapel, Santa Croce 141
4.2 Michelangelo, Madonna Lactans drawing (ca. 1525). Black pencil, red pencil, white lead and ink on prepared paper, 54.1 × 39.6 cm. Florence, Casa Buonarroti 147
4.3 Michelangelo, Madonna of the Stairs (ca. 1492). Marble relief sculpture, 56.7 cm × 40.1 cm. Florence, Casa Buonarroti 149
4.4 Michelangelo, Pietà (1498–99). Marble sculpture, 174 cm × 195 cm. Vatican City, St. Peter’s Basilica 154
4.5 Michelangelo, Pietà (1498–99), detail. Marble sculpture, 174 cm × 195 cm. Vatican City, St. Peter’s Basilica 155
4.6 Antonio Rossellino, Madonna and Child (1478), detail. Marble relief sculpture, 54 × 73 cm. Florence, Santa Croce Church 159
4.7 Michelangelo, Bruges Madonna (1501–4). Marble sculpture, 200 cm. Bruges, Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk 160
4.8 Michelangelo, Bruges Madonna detail (1501–4). Marble sculpture, 200 cm. Bruges, Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk 161
4.9 Michelangelo, Doni Tondo (1506). Tempera on wood, 120 cm. Florence, Uffizi Gallery 163
4.10 Michelangelo, Pietà (ca. 1540). Black chalk on paper, 28.9 × 18.9 cm. Boston, The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum 165
5.1a Fra Angelico (ca. 1400–1455), Annunciation of Cortona, ca. 1433–1434. Tempera on wood, 175 × 180 cm. Cortona, Museo Diocesano 176
5.1b Detail from Fra Angelico, Annunciation of Cortona, showing the boustrophedon 179
5.2a Filippo Lippi (ca. 1406–1469), Annunciation, ca. 1450–1453. Tempera on wood, 68.6 × 152.7 cm. London, National Gallery, Presented by Sir Charles Eastlake, 1861 181
5.2b Deatil from Filippo Lippi, Annunciation 181
5.3 Gentile da Fabriano (ca. 1375–1427), Annunciation, ca. 1421–1425. Tempera and gold leaf on wood, 41 × 48 cm. Rome, Vatican Museums 184
5.4 Drawing of “kairos” (the technical term for the shed bar) in weaving terminology 187
5.5 Kairos relief following the Lysippos model, second century BC. Marble, 66 × 62 × 9 cm. Turin, Museo di Antichità 188
5.6 Coptic Kairos relief, third–fourth century CE. Limestone, dimensions unknown. Cairo, National Museum 191
5.7 Relief with Kairos, eleventh or twelfth century CE. Marble, dimensions unknown (Fragmentary slabs reused in the ambo stairs). Torcello, Cattedrale di Santa Fosca 193
5.8 School of Andrea Mantegna (1431–1506), Occasio and Poenitentia, ca. 1500. Fresco transferred to canvas, 168 × 146 cm. Mantua, Museo della Città nel Palazzo di San Sebastiano 196
5.9 Sandro Botticelli (1444–1510), The Cestello Annunciation, 1489. Tempera on wood, 150 × 156 cm. Florence, Uffizi Galleries 197
5.10a Francesco del Cossa (1436–1478), The Annunciation, 1470–1472. Tempera on wood, 139 × 113.5 cm. Dresden, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister 200
5.10b Detail of the snail from Francesco del Cossa, The Annunciation 201
6.1 Giovanni Battista Gaulli, Dome Fresco (1672–1675). Fresco, ca. 18 m. (diameter). Rome, Chiesa del Gesù 216
6.2 Giovanni Battista Gaulli, Duplex intercessio, detail of Dome Fresco (1672–1675). Fresco. Rome, Chiesa del Gesù 221
6.3 Giovanni Lanfranco, Assumption of the Virgin (1625–1627). Fresco, 622 sq. m. Rome, Sant’Andrea della Valle 225
6.4 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Intercession of Christ and the Virgin (ca. 1672). Pen and ink on white paper, 22.9 × 21 cm. Leipzig, Germany, Museum der bildenden Künste, inv. no. 7813 227
6.5 Lorenzo Monaco (attrib.), Intercession of Christ and the Virgin (before 1402). Tempera on linen, 239.4 × 153 cm. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art 233
6.6 Gherardo di Giovanni del Fora (attrib.), Christ and the Virgin Interceding for Humanity (ca. 1490). Oil and tempera on panel, 87.6 × 55.2 cm. Montreal Museum of Fine Arts 234
6.7 Anonymous, Pater de Coelis Deus. Engraving, ca. 12.7 × 18.42 cm. From Peter Stoergler, Asma Poeticum Litaniarum Lauretanarum (Linz, Typis Joannis Paltauff: 1636), plate no. 7 244
6.8 Pietro da Cortona, Dome and Apse Frescoes (1647–1660). Fresco. Rome, Santa Maria in Vallicella 246
7.1 Anthony Van Dyck (1599–1641), Lamentation of Christ. 1635. Oil on canvas, 115 × 208 cm. Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp 260
7.2 Andries Colyn de Nole, attributed to (1598–1638), Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows. Wood, life-sized. Sint-Carolus Borromeuskerk, Antwerp 265
7.3 The Gotha Missal: Fol. 63v, Crucifixion, c.1375. Master of the Boqueteaux (French), and Workshop. Ink, tempera, and gold on vellum, 27.1 × 19.5 cm. Cleveland Museum of Art. Mr. and Mrs. William H. Marlatt Fund 1962.287.63.b 266
7.4 Monogrammist II with a skull, Lamentation of Christ in a shrine with the other six sorrows of the Virgin. 1511. Engraving, 139 × 94 mm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 270
7.5 Rogier van der Weyden (1399–1464), The Descent from the Cross. Before 1443. Oil on panel, 204.5 × 261.5 cm. Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid 272
7.6 F. Boener, Hand-boecxken des broederschaps van Seven Weeën der H. Maghet Maria. 1639. De Seste Wee, p. 42. Ruusbroec Institute, Library, University of Antwerp 275
7.7 Anthony Van Dyck (1599–1641), Lamentation of Christ. 1634. Oil on oak panel, 109 × 149 cm. Alte Pinakothek, Bayerische Staatsgemaeldesammlungen, Munich 276
7.8 Hieronymus Wierix after Taddeo Zuccaro. Pietà. 1563–before 1580. Engraving, 511 × 408 mm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 280
7.9 Johan Sadeler (I), after Hieronymus Wierix, after Taddeo Zuccaro, after Aegidius Sadeler, Pietà. 1580–1600. Engraving, 295 × 216 mm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 282
7.10 Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475–1564), Pietà. 1540. Black chalk on paper, 28.9 × 18.9 cm. Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston 290
8.1 Rembrandt, Simeon and Hannah in the Temple, c.1628. Oil on oak, 55.5 × 44 cm. Hamburg, Kunsthalle, Bredius 535 306
8.2 Rembrandt. Presentation in the Temple with the Angel: Small Plate, 1630. Etching, 10.1 × 7.8 cm. Minneapolis, Thrivent Collection of Religious Art 308
8.3 Rembrandt, Virgin and Child with the Cat and Snake, 1654. Etching, 9.5 × 14.3 cm. Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum-Prentenkabinet 310
8.4 Schelte Adams Bolswert after Pieter Paul Rubens, the Immaculate Conception, 1630–1650, published by Cornelis Galle I. Engraving, 43 × 30.7 cm. Trustees of the British Museum, London 314
8.5 Andrea Mantegna, Madonna and Child, 1470s. Engraving, 20.6 × 23.3 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 317
8.6 Rembrandt, Descent from the Cross, c.1633. Oil on panel, 89.4 × 65.2 cm. Munich, Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen, Alte Pinakothek, Bredius 550 320
8.7 Lucas Vorsterman after Rubens, Descent from the Cross, 1620. Engraving, 57.8 × 43.e cm, sheet, Philadelphia, Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Muriel and Philip Berman Gift, Object Number 1985-52-15165. Trustees of the British Museum 322
8.8 Rembrandt, Lamentation over the Dead Christ, c.1634–35. Oil on paper, 31.9 × 26.7 cm. London, The National Gallery, Bredius 565 324
8.9 Rembrandt, Virgin Mary with the Instruments of the Passion, 1652. Etching, 11 × 8.9 cm. Bartsch 85. Morgan Library & Museum, New York 328
8.10 Schelte Adams Bolswert after Abraham Bloemaert, Virgin of Sorrows with the Holy Face, 1612–15. Engraving, 39.69 × 29.53 cm. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Mary Stansbury Ruiz Bequest 330
9.1 Our Lady of Tepepan (ca. 1550). Polychrome alabaster, 58 cm (without the saint below). Tepepan, Mexico, Church of Our Lady of the Visitation 337
9.2 Anonymous, Portrait of Pedro de Gante with the Virgin of Tepepan (ca. 18th century). Oil on canvas, 281.5 × 253 cm. Mexico City, Museo Nacional de Historia, Castillo de Chapultepec 339
9.3 Peter Paul Rubens, Franciscan Allegory in Honor of the Immaculate Conception, 1631–1632. Oil on panel, 53.7 × 78.4 cm. Philadelphia Museum of Art 340
9.4 Chinampanec-Style Statue of Xipe Totec (God of Spring and Agriculture), with Glyph Representing Date 1 Acatl, Aztec (1507 AD). Basalt, paint, 77.5 × 31 × 24 cm, National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 344
9.5 Our Lady of the Rosary with Saints (18th century). Oil on stone (tecali), 28.6 × 36.7 × 1.9 cm. New York City, Brooklyn Museum of Art 348
9.6 Miniature from De imitation Christi, o Contemptus mundi, Nahuatl manuscript (1530–1560), d-IV-7, f1v. Colored ink, gold on paper, 136 × 82 mm. El Escorial, Spain, Real Biblioteca del Monasterio de El Escorial 352
9.7 The Ideal Atrium (ca. 1579), from Diego Valadés, Rhetorica Christiana ad concionandi et orandi usum accommodate […] ex Indorum maximè deprompta sunt historiis. Perugia, Italy: Petrus Jacobus Petrutius, 1579. Copper engraving, 24.3 × 18 cm 354
9.8 Francisco Sylverio de Sotomayor, True Portrait of the Miraculous Image of Our Lady of Tepepan (ca. 1727), from Aurora alegre del dichoso dia de la Gracia Maria Santissima digna Madre de Dios. Mexico City: Joseph Bernardo de Hogal, 1727. Copper engraving, 8.8 × 6.2 cm 362
9.9 Niche Sculpture of Our Lady of Tepepan (ca. 1650–1700). Basalt, dimensions unknown. Parroquia de Santa María de la Visitación, Xochimilco, Mexico City 365
9.10 Duns Scotus and María de Ágreda in Support of Saint Francis and the Immaculate Conception (ca. 1680). Portería mural, Convent of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, Ozumba, Mexico 368
9.11 Manuel de Villavicencio, San Francisco y la Virgen (ca. 1765). Copper engraving, 10.3 × 7.7 cm. Reproduced in Manuel Romero de Terreros, Grabados y grabadores en la Nueva España. Mexico City: Arte Mexicano, 1948, p. 371 373
10.1 The Virgin and Child attended by Angels, ca. 1600, Mughal India; Brown and blue ink with gold on paper, full folio 32.1 cm × 23.2 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 2015.785; Creative Commons License CC0 1.0) 385
10.2 The seated Madonna, the Sehdara Bangla, the Lahore Fort, 1617–18 (Mehreen Chida-Razvi, photo taken in 2020) 389
10.3 Detail showing the painting of the Virgin Mary on the palace wall, just above the head of Jahangir, Darbar of Jahangir, attributed to Manohar and Abu’l Hasan, ca. 1624 with repainting ca. 1628, Northern India; Ink, colour gold and silver on paper, full folio 35 × 20 cm. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 393
10.4 Jahangir receiving Prince Khurram on his return from a military campaign in Mewar, from the Windsor Padshahnama, fol. 194b, painted by Murar, ca. 1640, Mughal India. Opaque watercolour, ink and gold on paper, 34.2 × 23.4 cm. The Royal Collection, Windsor 396
10.5 Jahangir presenting Prince Khurram with a turban ornament, from the Windsor Padshahnama, fol. 195a, painted by Payag, ca. 1640, Mughal India. Opaque watercolour, ink and gold on paper, 30.6 × 20.3 cm. The Royal Collection, Windsor 397
10.6 Shah Jahan giving audience to a Persian embassy, likely for an illustrated Padshahnama, attrib. to Payag, ca. 1640, Mughal India. Opaque watercolour, ink and gold on paper, full folio 43.5 × 30 cm. Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford 399
10.7 Detail showing the partial figure of the Virgin Mary on the wall behind the jharoka-i darshan, immediately next to the left throne brackets, Shah Jahan giving audience to a Persian embassy, likely for an illustrated Padshahnama, attrib. to Payag, ca. 1640, Mughal India. Opaque watercolour, ink and gold on paper, full folio 43.5 × 30 cm. Bodleian Libraries, University of Oxford 400
10.8 Detail showing the Virgin Mary on the pavilion wall, just above the right cypress tree, Jahangir and Prince Khurram Entertained by Nur Jahan, ca. 1621–27, North India. Opaque watercolour, ink and gold on paper, full folio 25.2 × 14.2 cm. Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 401
10.9 The Virgin Mary on a decorative vase, inscribed painting, western wall, entrance gate to the Tomb of I‘timad ud-Daula, Agra, 1622–27 (Mehreen Chida-Razvi, photo taken in 2015) 403
10.10 Mughal Court Scene, 18th century, Mughal India. Ink, paint and gold on paper, full folio 33.7 × 22.5 cm. The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore 418