Index
Accommodation of difference
.
see (reasonable) accommodation
Additive discrimination
223
Affirmative action
see positive discrimination or positive action
Terminology
11
African Court of Human and Peoples’ Rights
122
Age discrimination scrutiny
108–109, 113
Ameliorative measures
see positive discrimination or positive action
Terminology
11
Assimilation
51
Asymmetry
81–82, 88, 135–136, 202–206
Benign discrimination
see positive discrimination or positive action
Terminology
11
Breadwinner benefits and sex discrimination
130, 227–228, 232–233, 243–245
Canadian Supreme Court
Indirect discrimination
124, 126, 164
Intersectional discrimination
235–236
Positive discrimination or positive action
199, 201, 205–206, 212
(Reasonable) accommodation
60, 164–165
Substantive equality
58–59, 164, 199
Systemic discrimination
126
Unified approach
165
Caste-based discrimination as racial discrimination
94–95
Collective redress
194, 204
Colonialism
23
Competing rights
Intersectional discrimination
226, 259
Positive discrimination or positive action
69, 258
Sex/gender equality and religion
68
Sexual orientation and religion
68
‘Creamy layer’ issue
211
CRPD-model of reasonable accommodation
172–175, 178–182
Difference dilemma
66
Differentiation and discrimination
79, 161, 237, 253
Discrimination
.
judicial review
‘But for’ discrimination
101
Characterization
79–83
Discrimination and differentiation
79
Discrimination by association
102
Intentional discrimination
98, 101, 143–144
Intra-group discrimination
100
Pejorative meaning
80–81, 188–189
Relationship with equality
79–80, 97
Systemic discrimination
118
‘Ulterior motive’ discrimination
101, 125
Terminology
9
Disparate impact discrimination
.
see indirect discrimination
Terminology
10
Disproportionate or undue burden
61, 163, 165, 173
Diversity
196, 205
Domestic workers and indirect discrimination
132
Dominant standards
36, 51, 62, 73, 118, 151–152, 224–225, 243–245, 254
Duty of differential treatment
.
see (reasonable) accommodation
Effective immutability
85, 236
‘Empty idea of equality’
24–25
Equality as a legal standard
Classification and paradox of legal equality
30, 260
Critical function
251
Development from formal to more substantive equality
252–256
Development of shared overarching conceptual framework
250–251
Difference with equality as a politico-philosophical standard
25–26
Equality of what (material scope)
24–27
Equality of whom (personal scope)
20–24
Individualized or group-based treatment
30, 38–39, 260
Interconnecting function
248–249
Mutual influence across jurisdictions
34, 250–251
Potentially radicalizing concept
249
Relationship with non-discrimination
79–80, 97
Role of courts/judicial bodies
31–35, 250–252
Role of the state
18
Separation of powers
31, 252
Terminology
8
What equality (conceptual scope)
28–30
Equality as a politico-philosophical standard
18–25
Equality standards terminology
8
Essentialism
223, 225
EU model of discrimination review
111–114
European Court of Human Rights
Indirect discrimination
121, 125, 148
Intersectional discrimination
234–235, 238–240
Positive discrimination or positive action
206–209, 217, 219
Raised level of scrutiny
104, 107–108
(Reasonable) accommodation
166–175
Substantive equality
59
Systemic discrimination
127–128
European Court of Justice
Direct and indirect discrimination
111–114
Indirect discrimination
119–121, 129–131, 134, 149
Intersectional discrimination
240–246
Positive discrimination or positive action
200, 209–210, 219
(Reasonable) accommodation
61
Substantive equality
200
Expanding reach of equality standards
20–27, 35, 90–97
Expanding role of judicial bodies
250–52
Expansion of protected grounds
90–97, 114
Categorical inclusion
91–94
Definitional inclusion
94–97
Formal equality
Assimilation to dominant standards
51
Challenging dominant standards
52
Characterization
38, 41
Difficulties and limitations
50–54
Relationship with substantive equality
39–40, 54, 252–254
Symmetrical review
202–205
Terminology
8–9
Fragmentation
225, 241–242
Freedom of religion or discrimination on the basis of religion
136
Fuzzy demarcations
Between direct and indirect discrimination
96, 114, 145–146
Between remedial measures and ‘ordinary’discrimination
208
Between remedial measures and ordinary social policy
215–217
Gender identity discrimination as sex discrimination
95–96
Group and individual
81
Hidden forms of discrimination
101, 125, 146
Hierarchies within protected groups
224, 226
Horizontalization
19, 76, 249
Immigration policies and indirect racial discrimination
134
Immutability
84, 236
Indian Supreme Court
Indirect discrimination
122, 126–127, 146
Positive discrimination or positive action
201, 211–212
Substantive equality
127
Systemic discrimination
126–127
Indirect discrimination
.
judicial review
Development of the concept
119–123
Overlap with claim to formal equality
141
Relationship with direct discrimination
111–114, 124–125
Relationship with (reasonable) accommodation
138–139, 142, 161–162, 171–172, 177, 181, 254–255
Relationship with substantive equality
76–77, 117, 126–144, 254
Relationship with substantive rights
136
Relationship with systemic discrimination
126–144
Structurally advantaged group
135
Terminology
10
Individualized treatment
39, 225–226, 259
Inextricably linked
98
Inter-American Court of Human Rights
Indirect discrimination
121
Intersectional discrimination
230–231
Positive discrimination or positive action
64, 201
Raised level of scrutiny
104–105, 230
Substantive equality
64
Systemic discrimination
64
Interpretive space
250–251
Intersectional discrimination
Definition
222–223
Competition between protected groups
225
Expansion of protected grounds
236
Hierarchies within protected groups
226
Intersection race and sex/gender
221, 223, 227, 234, 237–238
Intersection sex/gender and age
234–235, 246
Intersection sex/gender and marital status
227–228, 232–233, 243–245
Intersection of sex/gender and family status
238–239
Intersection sex/gender and religion
228, 239–240, 242
Intersection sex/gender, HIV and poverty
230–231
Intersection sex/gender, religion and marital status
232–234
Relationship with direct discrimination
230–236
Relationship with indirect discrimination
236–240
Relationship with positive discrimination or positive action
211
‘Sex plus’ discrimination
244–245
Single axis approach
242–245
Terminology
11–12
Job evaluation scheme and indirect sex discrimination
131
Judicialization
33
Judicial review equality and non-discrimination
Comparability
44–48, 103
Degrees of scrutiny
106–109, 150–151, 184, 202–210, 240, 245, 257
Direct discrimination (general)
Direct discrimination (EU law)
111–114
Fuzzy boundaries between review elements
45–48, 103
Raised level of scrutiny
43, 102–111, 146
Increasing complexity
257–261
Indirect discrimination
123–125, 145–152
Intersectional discrimination
229–246
Lack of (reasonable) accommodation
182–184
Legitimacy of the goal
42, 44–45
(Mis)fit
43, 47, 105–106, 194–195, 204, 210–213
Normative appreciation involved
44–48, 106, 114, 140, 145, 240, 251
Parallels with social rights
35, 186
Positive discrimination or positive action
202–210
Proportionality
43–45
Proportionality stricto sensu
44
Quantitative and qualitative proof
148
(Un)justified unequal treatment
41–48
(Un)justified equal treatment
.
see lack of (reasonable) accommodation
Language and indirect racial discrimination
135
League of Nations
75
Like cases must be treated alike
41, 253
formal equality
Limits of law
36, 73
Locke, John
18
Marriage official and sexual orientation discrimination
139
Maternity leave and parental leave
218–219
Matrimonial regimes and indirect sex discrimination
133
(Mis)fit
43, 47, 105–106, 194–195, 204, 210–213, 215–216
Multiple discrimination
222, 240–241
Muslim marriage and indirect sex discrimination
133, 232–234
Neutral dress codes and indirect religious discrimination
136–139
Neutral rules with unequal effects
53–54
Open and closed models of justification
111–114, 140
Open and closed models of protected grounds
88–90, 236
Open-endedness and separation of powers
72–73, 152–153, 184–185, 258
Open-endedness of substantive equality
69–72, 184–185, 252, 258
Over- or underinclusion
211–213, 215–216, 258
(mis)fit
Paradox of legal equality
30, 260
Parental leave and maternity
218–219
Part time work and sex discrimination
129–130
Positive discrimination or positive action
Adverse effects
198, 214–2016
Competition between protected groups
212–215
Demarcation of beneficiary groups
210–213
Difference with (reasonable) accommodation
57, 59, 65–66, 192–193
Differing degrees of scrutiny
206–210
Discretionary competence
201
Fuzzy boundaries with ‘ordinary’ discrimination
217–219
Fuzzy boundaries with (reasonable) accommodation
217–219
Fuzzy boundaries with social policy
215–217
Indirect positive discrimination
191
Instrumentality
196–198
Legality
198–202
Legitimacy
194–196, 216–217
Relationship with substantive equality
57, 59, 62–64, 77, 193, 199, 205, 255
Scarcity of resources
197, 215–216, 226, 258–259
Symmetry and asymmetry in judicial review
202–206, 208, 209, 220
Tackling structural and systemic discrimination
62–64, 194–196, 205
Temporal nature
192–193, 198–199
Terminology
11
Underrepresentation
190, 197, 213–215, 2016, 220
Positive obligations
36
Preferential treatment
see positive discrimination or positive action
Terminology
11
Pregnancy and sex discrimination
98–99, 186
Proactive approach
185–186
Proliferation of protected grounds
90–97, 225
Prospective theories
195–196
Protected grounds of discrimination
Classic list
91
Conceptual identification
84–88, 227
Differing levels of scrutiny
106–109, 150–151, 184
Exhaustive list
89
Expansion list of grounds
90–97, 225, 236
Ground inflation
94
Hierarchy between grounds
115, 226, 257
Legal identification
88–97
Raised level of scrutiny
49, 227.
judicial review
Terminology
9
Proxy
43, 106, 108, 211, 243, 260
Quantitative and qualitative proof
148–150
Quota
191, 196–197
(Reasonable) accommodation
Competing rights
68
CRPD-model
172–175, 178–182
Difference with positive discrimination or positive action
65–66, 158–159, 192–193
Disability
60, 67, 163, 165, 168, 170, 172–175, 177–178, 178–181
Individual and collective accommodation; universal design
159–160, 174–176, 178–179, 258
Pregnancy
62, 161–162, 165
Relationship with direct discrimination
161–162, 165
Relationship with indirect discrimination
138–139, 142, 161–162, 171–172, 177, 181, 254–255
Relationship with substantive equality
60–62, 77, 164–165, 175, 254–255
Religion
62, 67, 164, 167
Sexual orientation
170–171
Sui generis modality of discrimination
162–181
Terminology
10–11
Redistributive justice
24–25, 194–195
Remedial measures
.
see positive discrimination or positive action
Terminology
11
Retrospective theories
194–195
Reverse discrimination
see positive discrimination or positive action
Terminology
11
Roma segregation and indirect racial discrimination
134
Scarcity of resources
197, 215–216, 226, 258–259
Scheduled castes and tribes
190, 211–212
Sensitive grounds of discrimination
.
see protected grounds
Separation of powers
31, 50, 90, 152–153, 252
Sequential discrimination
222
‘Sex plus’ discrimination
244–245
Sexual orientation discrimination and sex discrimination
95–96
Sexual orientation and marital status
100
Single-axis focus
241–242
Socio-economic disadvantage as discrimination ground
92–93
South African Constitutional Court
Indirect discrimination
124, 132–133, 137–138, 146, 149–150
Intersectional discrimination
231–234, 236–238
Positive discrimination or positive action
63, 199, 206, 211, 213–215, 217–218
Raised level of scrutiny
104, 232, 237
(Reasonable) accommodation
137–138, 174–178
Substantive equality
58, 63, 175, 199
Systemic discrimination
63
Special measures
see positive discrimination or positive action
Terminology
11
Statistical proof
148
Stereotyping and stigma
87, 198, 208, 225, 231, 235
Substantive equality
Canadian Supreme Court
58–59
Characterization
38–39, 55–60, 252–254
Development from formal to more substantive equality
252–256
Difficulties and limitations
66–73
Inter-American Court of Human Rights
64
Relationship with formal equality
39–40, 54, 252–254
Relationship with indirect discrimination
76–77, 117, 126–144, 254
Relationship with positive discrimination or positive action
57, 59, 62–64, 193, 199, 255
Relationship with (reasonable) accommodation
60–62, 77, 164–165, 175, 254–255
South African Constitutional Court
58, 63, 175, 199
Terminology
8–9
Suspect grounds of discrimination
.
see protected grounds
Systemic discrimination and structural disadvantage
Canadian Supreme Court
126
European Court of Human Rights
127
Indian Supreme Court
126–127
Inter-American Court of Human Rights
64
Intersectional discrimination
259–260
Relationship with indirect discrimination
126–144
Relationship with positive discrimination
204
Relationship with protected grounds
85–86
South African Constitutional Court
63
Tackling systemic discrimination
62–64, 73, 118, 126–144, 151–152, 192, 195, 254, 260
Terminology
11
Temporary special measures
see positive discrimination or positive action
Terminology
11
Terminology used
8–12
Unalike cases must be treated unalike
55–56, 69–72, 141–142, 166–175, 177–178, 193, 252, 255
Underrepresentation
190, 197, 213–215, 2016, 220
Undue hardship
163, 165, 173
‘Unified’ approach to non-discrimination
165
United States Supreme Court
Indirect discrimination
119, 143–144
Positive discrimination or positive action
203–205
Raised level of scrutiny
49, 103–104, 107
(Reasonable) accommodation
61, 158–159, 163
Substantive equality
255
Universal design
62, 160
Vulnerable groups
83, 87–88, 135, 234, 260