The previous chapter emphasized resilience through purposeful teaching in teachersâ ethics. In this chapter, we argue that it is important to guide teachers to reflect on their implicit beliefs related to possible stereotypes in their thinking. In inclusive education, teachersâ task is to provide equal learning opportunities to all students, including those with learning difficulties, immigrant backgrounds, specific talents, diverse gender identities, and various worldviews. We have developed a growth mindset pedagogy to help teachers actualize ethical teaching in inclusive classrooms by paying attention to implicit student beliefs that hinder their learning. We provide concrete examples of how teachersâ have adopted a growth mindset pedagogy in their teaching and moral education. We also offer examples of teachers with entity beliefs (fixed mindset), i.e., teachers who believe that certain students are incapable of learning and who, thus, fail to invest time and effort in helping them. Such teachers might not understand the ethical nature of their profession and the implications of their implicit beliefs.
1 Teachersâ Reflection on Their Beliefs and Actions
In Finnish teacher education, the goal is to educate teachers who can think ethically and pedagogically and reflect on their own work (Kansanen et al., 2000). Reflection is a necessary professional skill for educators to grow as teachers. The concept of reflection originates from John Dewey (1859â1952), who is also known for his philosophy of learning by doing. According to Dewey, reflection is âactive, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and further conclusions to which it leadsâ (Dewey, 1910, p. 6).
Teacher education includes both theoretical and practical studies. In teaching practice, the teacher learns by teaching, but this is insufficient; a teacher who thinks pedagogically also requires the skills to reflect on and justify the goals and acts of teaching. Donald Schön (1930â1997) transformed Deweyâs definition of reflection into a schema for describing reflective practice. Schön identified reflection-in-action as a teacherâs thinking during the teaching event, where decisions are quickly and often intuitively taken. By contrast, reflection-on-action refers, for example, to deeply pondering the goals achieved
Teachersâ professional ethics concern the commitment to support the development of every student. Teachers should believe that a student can learn even if the student lacks this belief or is not dedicated to studying. In an inclusive school, teachers encounter diverse students with different learning (dis)abilities, cultural backgrounds and socioemotional challenges. Teachers must continuously ponder how to distribute their time and resources between students. This decision requires teachers to understand the role and meaning of implicit beliefs for their ethical actions. Thus, it is useful for teachers to know the concepts of incremental beliefs (growth mindset) and entity beliefs (fixed mindset) presented in Carol Dweckâs (2000, 2006) theory. Moreover, they could reflect on how these beliefs are manifested in their teaching and their studentsâ learning.
As mentioned above, Dweck (2000, 2006) identifies two different implicit beliefs (mindsets) that guide our motivation, thinking and action. A teacher with a growth mindset believes that basic human qualities such as ability, intelligence and morality are malleable and can be developed, whereas a teacher with a fixed mindset believes that such qualities are stable and unalterable. According to growth mindset thinking, learning is a lifelong journey, and learning from mistakes is always possible. Fixed mindset thinking takes the opposite stand on these issues and advocates a belief that intelligence and giftedness are fixed at birth and cannot be developed. In this kind of thinking, a personâs earlier accomplishments predict the possibilities for the future, and it is more difficult to learn from mistakes and change.
In her empirical research, Dweck (2000, pp. 119, 129) highlights the correlation between these mindsets and many areas of life. Mindsets can, for example, be connected to morality. Fixed mindset thinking leads easily to hiding mistakes, embellishment and lying. By contrast, growth mindset thinking encourages truthfulness, as only honest feedback helps the learner to advance. In Finnish studies, the majority of teachers possess a growth mindset related to the development of intelligence, giftedness and personality (Kuusisto & Tirri, 2013; Laine et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2020a). However, in conceptions related to giftedness, we found a difference between teachers and parents (Kuusisto & Tirri, 2013). The teachers in our first study were more likely than the parents to consider giftedness a developmental attribute. Moreover, fixed mindset thinking was most prominent among parents from low socio-economic neighborhoods (Kuusisto & Tirri, 2013). However, when parents of the same low socio-economic school were studied five years later, most advocated a growth mindset (Tirri & Kuusisto, 2019), demonstrating a positive shift in parentsâ attitudes.
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In our empirical study on Finnish teachersâ morality, we found qualitative differences among teachers related to their implicit beliefs on the possibilities of their students to develop as moral citizens and how they taught morality in their classrooms (Rissanen et al., 2018a). Moreover, in a previous study with four subject teachers in Finnish secondary schools (grades 7â9, IâIII), we investigated the implications of teachersâ mindsets for moral education, in particular the implications for teaching morally and teaching morality (Fenstermacher et al., 2009). The four teachers were chosen from a survey measuring Finnish teachersâ (N = 463) mindsets using Carol Dweckâs (2000) mindset inventory. The qualitative data included preliminary interviews with the four teachers, observations and videotaping of their classroom teaching (approximately 15 h per teacher), followed by stimulated recall interviews. Two of the teachers were identified as supporting a fixed mindset (Jack, Patsy) and two a growth mindset (Kate, Sally).
I do not think about my work from an ethical point of view. I think that teaching does not need any ethics. It can only be teaching of the subject. The teacher is not necessarily an ethical exemplar, they can be only teachers. (Jack, preliminary interview)
Jack ignored the ethical aspects of teaching, instead concentrating on his duties to teach mathematics as a subject and helping students learn the content. He separated moral roles from teachersâ roles, seeing teaching as only transforming knowledge and skills.
Jackâs tendency towards a fix mindset was also reflected in his views on teaching morality. In his opinion it was no longer possible to foster studentsâ moral growth in secondary school. According to Jack, it was too late to teach moral behavior. Thus, he demonstrated helplessness responses to studentsâ moral growth.
Letâs say ⦠it is very difficult to aim at the personal development of the students. Mostly, we try to keep them under some kind of control. At this phase, in upper comprehensive school, it is not possible to teach manners that much anymore; I cannot regard that as my responsibility anymore, whether they wear hats in the classroom, spit on the streets, wait at traffic lights, stay quiet in the classroom ⦠even though in my lessons, of
course, I take care of that. But itâs like ⦠their behavior, they have already learned it, and you cannot change it anymore. (Jack, preliminary interview, Rissanen et al., 2018b, p. 72)
Our previous empirical research also identified deficits among preservice teachers and practicing mathematics teachers in understanding the holistic nature of the teaching profession, including ethical sensitivity (Kuusisto et al., 2012). Nevertheless, in Finland both the national curriculum and teachersâ professional ethics emphasize the holistic nature of teaching, including studentsâ moral development. All teachers, regardless of their subjects, thus require education in how to include an ethical dimension in their teaching.
Kate, a language teacher, tended towards a growth mindset. Her ethical conduct and ethos indicated a humanistic worldview that was in line with that of the Finnish teachersâ ethical code, which is based on humanistic psychology and human rights. In the next interview extract, she emphasizes the individual needs and rights of students with the goal of making the world a better place through her teaching.
I think what actually motivates me the most in teaching languages is that, in the end, the aim of learning languages is that there would be no wars, no hatred, because language helps you to come closer to other human beings who do not share your culture. (Kate, preliminary interview, Rissanen et al., 2018b, p. 69)
So is there a problem with your alarm clock? This is the second time youâve shown up late. If the reason is; Iâm sorry, but I assume the reason is that youâre on the computer too late in the evening, so cut it out. I mean come on; it is the middle of the day already. I woke up at six today and so have many others here; so I will send a message to your parents about this; they have to know about this. (Kate, critical incident 41, Rissanen et al., 2018b, p. 70)
Well, that was a bit mean of me, but I donât think itâs that bad that I say these things, because itâs not the result of your appearance, but what
you do or donât do. Thatâs what I criticize. I donât even know the families of these students, like, âyour brother was terrible, and Iâve taught your mother and she was terrible too, always lateâ â¦. I know people have heard these things, that you will never achieve anything because your dad didnât either â¦. I would never fall for that kind of thinking. (Kate, stimulated recall interview, Rissanen et al., 2018b, p. 70)
Thus, Kate focused on the studentâs ethical actions with emphasis on situational attributions, rather than family background, in facing ethical conflicts and challenges. She was motivated to enhance studentsâ ethical growth. The implications of teachersâ mindsets for teaching ethics and teaching ethically are compiled in Table 11.
Implications of teachersâ mindsets for teaching morally and teaching morality (from Rissanen et al., 2018b, p. 66)
| Tendencies related to teachersâ fixed mindset | Tendencies related to teachersâ growth mindset | |
|---|---|---|
| Professional moral ethos of teachers (âTeaching morallyâ) |
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| Educating studentsâ ethical capabilities (âTeaching moralityâ) |
Fostering studentsâ
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Fostering studentsâ
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In a study among American and Finnish upper secondary students, we were able to use a short intervention to change the mindsets of students related to
Dweckâs theory is based on neurological studies demonstrating the potential of the brain to develop throughout a personâs life. This quality is called neuroplasticity (Kujala & Näätänen, 2010). The brain can be viewed as a muscle that requires practice, repetition and challenges in order to develop and learn. With practice, new cells are created in the brain with new connections, synapses. This means that learning has a strong biological foundation. Moreover, it indicates that intelligence, giftedness, and morality can be developed. All this implies that implicit beliefs important part of teachersâ reflection in both pre- and in-service education.
3 Manifestations of Teacherâs Implicit Beliefs in Teaching â The Case of Anne
Anne is an elementary school teacher specialized in teaching first and second grades. She is highly experienced also in supervising preservice teachers in their teaching practicum. At the time of the study, Anne taught a first-grade class with seven-year-old students.
For the research, Anne first completed Dweckâs inventory (Table 12). This was followed by observation and videotaping of her teaching for one week (19 hours). The purpose of the observation was to explore how implicit beliefs are manifested in teaching (See Rissanen et al., 2019). According to the results from Dweckâs inventory, Anne displayed both growth-mindset and fixed-mindset tendences in her thinking, indicating a mixed mindset (Rissanen et al., 2019).
Mindsets manifested in Anneâs teaching
| Teacher Anne | Fixed mindset | Growth mindset |
|---|---|---|
| Mindsets about learning | ||
| Dweckâs inventory | Intelligence (M = 3.0) | Giftedness (M = 3.75) |
| Definition in own words | Giftedness is an inherent ability to master certain areas of life | Without work and effort, giftedness will narrow |
| Mindsets actualizing in teaching | ||
| Noticing individual needs of the students |
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| Feedback | Anne wanted to encourage gifted and talented students to trust themselves more, but she did not identify these studentsâ need for special support to encounter their challenges |
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| Attitude towards mistakes |
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The video recordings of Anneâs teaching demonstrated that she strongly emphasized learning processes, which is a central feature of a growth mindset pedagogy (Rissanen et al., 2019). Anne typically provided positive feedback praising her students. Her feedback systematically focused on effort, completing tasks, and choosing strategies. For example, when a student had finished a task quickly, Anne asked the student to describe how they had found the solution: âHow did you came up with this result? How did you reason it?â
Furthermore, Anneâs focus on learning and mastery was evident in her decision not to use exams or tests to evaluate her studentsâ learning. In her experience, test results easily caused students to define themselves both as students and human beings. Anne wanted her students to concentrate on developing and learning rather than performing or comparing themselves to others. Anneâs pedagogical strategies embodied the principles of the Finnish National Core Curriculum (FNBE, 2016), which highlight learning processes and evaluation based on studentsâ own previous work rather than comparison with students.
Anne emphasized the importance of teachers knowing their students well in order to meet their diverse needs and guide their individual learning processes. Anneâs goal was to tailor teaching and tasks to match the developmental level of each student. Moreover, she strove to choose tasks that enabled her to encounter and support each student at an individual level. Thus, Anneâs pedagogical thinking and actions were mostly in line with a growth mindset pedagogy, and educational policy in Finland.
Often, I make mistakes by accident, but sometimes I make them on purpose, so that the children can see their teacher perhaps does not always know things â¦. I try to communicate that mistakes are ok and itâs not so serious if you make them and somehow through that encourage them, like, letâs just do this again and letâs give it another try. (Anne, preliminary interview, Rissanen et al., 2019, p. 209)
Anne hoped for and anticipated mistakes beforehand in order to challenge her studentsâ thinking. Thus, she used failures and conflicts as pedagogical tools.
I tried to create an intellectual conflict â this was a very fruitful situation and I was really happy when I noticed that they put them in pairs [differently shaped pieces of paper], but all the pieces did not have a pair â of course I could not have arranged this beforehand, but I was hoping this would happen. (Anne, critical incident 1, stimulated recall interview)
Since it was January [indicating almost six months of schooling], I was hoping that the student would have said something or at least looked at me. Eventually. [This student is] incredibly talented, but I do not usually ask her anything if I kind of sense that she does not want to answer. She wants to feel somehow very sure [before she is willing to answer]. (Anne, critical incident 15, stimulated recall interview)
For example, I have one student who is ridiculously talented; she can do absolutely everything, and I do not even know how much she can, since she is so shy and cautious. For her, encouragement like âjust say nowâ or something like that does not work. So, I have been thinking that she kind of gathers courage and then at some point, since she is so smart, then at some point she will dare to show it a little bit. (Anne, preliminary interview)
Anne wished to encourage talented students to trust themselves, and she provided them space to gather their courage. At the same time, however, she decided not to attempt to help these students practice failing and coping with failure in a safe environment.
Anneâs class also contained another academically talented student who could not tolerate mistakes. Moreover, he seemed to lack persistence. In addition, Anne had noticed that this student was overly self-confident, which was
4 Promoting Equal Opportunities with a Growth Mindset Pedagogy
A growth mindset pedagogy promotes equal opportunities for all students to learn in inclusive schools. Table 13 presents the cornerstones of a growth mindset pedagogy, which are supporting individual learning processes, mastery
Growth mindset pedagogy (from Rissanen et al., 2019, p. 206)
Supporting individual learning processes
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Supporting mastery orientation
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Fostering studentsâ process-focused thinking
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Persistence
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Supporting individual learning processes means that teachers avoid deliberately labelling their students and their learning, skills or character. Even though teachers need to make diagnostic observations, the starting point does not reveal what the student could learn or define the learning process and its aims. In order to support studentsâ growth in the best possible way, teachers with growth mindsets highlight knowing and individually interacting with their students. In this way, teachers can learn to identify individual barriers and learning pits and help students overcome them. Differentiated teaching is one of the main tools for supporting individual learning processes (Laine & Tirri, 2016).
A growth mindset pedagogy emphasizes mastery orientation in learning. This means that the teacher underlines learning goals rather than performance goals. The aim is to learn, understand, and master in line with Bloomâs taxonomy. In addition, the teacher makes the subject personally meaningful, indicating that studying is not merely superficial and repetitive. In this kind of process, formative assessment that supports learning and avoids comparisons with peers during the whole process is important.
Benjamin Bloomâs (1913â1999) famous taxonomy of educational goals helps plan, evaluate and reflect on teaching and learning. Bloom developed the taxonomy to describe the six stages in cognitive development (see Figure 11).
The stages in Bloomâs taxonomy (from Bloom et al., 1956)
At the lowest stage of the taxonomy, knowing, the goal of learning is to identify and repeat, to show knowledge of the task in learning. A student can list, repeat, describe, define, identify and label. At the stage of understanding, the goal of education is to understand the meaning and purpose of the knowledge and demonstrate this understanding. A student can explain, summarize, interpret, estimate, annotate and categorize.
At the stage of applying, the goal of learning is to use the knowledge in new situations and demonstrate the practical application of this skill. A student can choose, integrate, judge, execute and present.
At the stage of analyzing, the goal of learning is to dissect knowledge and categorize it according to its most essential characteristics. A student can analyze, debate, divide and generalize.
At the stage of synthesizing, the goal of learning is to present creative and unique solutions and create holistic frameworks. A student can create, plan, produce and synthesize.
At the stage of evaluating, the goal of learning is to create and develop criteria for assessing knowledge and developing critical thinking. A student can compare, reason, contrast, create criteria and evaluate.
Bloomâs taxonomy can be used in the evaluation of the teaching-studying-learning process. In summative evaluations, the taxonomy is used to support the final and numerical evaluation. In formative evaluations, continuous qualitative feedback is provided for the advancement of the student. In diagnostic evaluations, the stage of a studentâs learning is identified at the beginning of a course or studies. The Finnish National Core Curriculum for Basic Education (FNBE, 2016) encourages the teacher to evaluate and give feedback in multiple ways and support studentsâ self-reflection.
The stages of Bloomâs taxonomy guide teachers and students to reflect on how well students master the learning content. In this way, teaching provides the best possibilities for a student to create different meanings from the content taught. For example, in religious education, studying only at the stage of knowledge leads a student to memorize facts about different religions (for example, âthe Pope is the leader of the Catholic churchâ). The meaning of religion, however, is not elucidated only at the stage of knowledge, as this stage does not include the significance of the Pope for those committed to the Catholic church. At the stage of evaluation, instead, students can reflect on the meaning of religious leadership for different churches and religions, evaluate the role of religion in society and form their own opinion on religious leadership. Understanding and evaluating these meanings does not require a person
Supporting studentsâ process-centered thinking refers mainly to the teacherâs feedback style. Positive comments should be provided on courage, choosing strategies and effort. Students should be taught the importance to learning of challenges and mistakes. Failures are not disasters but opportunities to learn. For example, in a mathematics class, the teacher should compliment students for making mistakes: âhow many mistakes did you make and what did you learn from them?â (Boaler, 2019). This creates a more open approach to learning where challenges are seen as positive, even crucial, aspects of the process. Students can be taught the meaning of growth and fixed mindsets in an age-appropriate way. Consequently, students learn concepts that help them understand and self-regulate their own learning process. For instance, students can be taught to ponder whether they explain and attribute their learning and challenges to a growth mindset approach, in other words, to factors they can influence, such as choosing strategies and making an effort, or to a fixed mindset approach, in other words to factors they cannot impact.
Many of the first graders become impatient at the beginning of the autumn when they are not able to do things. For example, Henri was not able to read or write at all [when he started first grade], so he used to say very often âI cannot do this.â And what the child means by that is that âI am not going to do this because I cannot because it is very hard and challenging.â So, I have started or I willingly hasten to add: âYou cannot do it yet.â I always like to add the word âyetâ to studentsâ sentences. And then sometimes I will continue by saying âthe reason why we practice is so you will learn this.â And guess what? Once I almost started crying when Henri was doing some exercise, and he was murmuring to himself: âThis is the dumbest exercise because I cannot do it yet,â and he didnât realize that he was saying that, but he just kept on working. (Mari, critical incident 6, stimulated recall interview)
Certain limitations exist to the implementation of a growth mindset pedagogy that stem from the national curriculum and school environment. For example, in our study involving principals in Finland and Estonia, a Finnish principal identified evaluation as a difficult area in which to manifest such a pedagogy. In lower secondary education, teachers are required to assign grades to students that enable them to proceed to future studies. This practice forces students to focus more on their grades than on their own learning goals (Tirri et al., 2021).
Teachers and schools require support from homes and parents to implement a growth mindset pedagogy. Parents are important partners in creating a school community with shared values and strategies. Studentsâ peers also play crucial role in creating growth-mindset learning communities in schools (Zhang et al., 2020b). In a study involving Finnish (n = 870) and Chinese (n = 992) secondary school students, we found that the way students praise their peers in their feedback primes and modifies their mindsets and academic motivation (Zhang et al., 2020b). The opportunity for students to provide feedback should thus be included in courses at all grade levels. Teacher education should also include education on how to guide students to give process-oriented feedback to their peers. The implication is that it is insufficient merely to teach mindset theory in schools or teacher education; instead, practical applications are required (Zhang et al., 2020b).
Questions to Reflect on by Yourself or with Your Peers
- âWhere does the concept of reflection come from? What experiences do you have of reflection? Discuss those experiences.
- âHow is a growth mindset related to morality? How can a teacher use a growth mindset pedagogy in moral education?
- âHow do you see the learning potential of diverse students? Can every student learn everything?
- â
Study the stages of Bloomâs taxonomy. Which have you utilized most in your own studying and teaching? - âReflect on the areas in life where you believe in growth mindset thinking, i.e., the idea of being able to grow and develop.
- âReflect on the areas in life where fixed mindset-thinking prevents you from growing and learning new things.
- âHow can you adopt a growth mindset to facilitate your own growth and the education of your students?
- âBecome familiar with Anneâs thinking and ponder how you could strengthen a growth mindset pedagogy in her teaching.
- âTable 13 shows the main points of a growth mindset pedagogy. Which of these factors are the most challenging for you in teaching and why? Which of the factors do you think you master already, and which factors should you practice more?
- âThe example in this section involves a first-grade student, Henri, who experienced learning and concentration difficulties. What kind of pedagogy and pedagogical strategies would you use to help Henri?
- âHow can principals support a growth mindset pedagogy in schools? What kind of opportunities and challenges do principals face in implementing a growth mindset pedagogy?
- âWhat is parentsâ role in supporting a growth mindset in their children?
- âWhat can peers do to support each otherâs learning?