On 6 May 1604, at Vilnius’s (Wilno) Cathedral of Saint Stanislaus, the coffin with the remains of Prince Casimir Jagiellon (1458–1484) was moved from the crypt and placed at the altar. On 10 May 1604, an Apostolic letter issued by Pope Clement VIII was read, which allowed Casimir to be venerated as a saint in Poland and Lithuania.1 Vilnius was to be the centre of his cult. The ceremony on 10 May 1604 was led by Bishop of Vilnius Benedykt Wojna (d. 1615) with the participation of the Chancellor of Lithuania, Lew Sapieha (1557–1633). During the celebration Sapieha accepted on behalf of King Sigismund III a Papal gift: a labarum with the effigy of Casimir. It was installed in the Cathedral where Casimir’s relics were kept; in the same year, the foundation stone of Saint Casimir Church was laid in Vilnius. The procession then proceeded to the Academy of Vilnius where its students publicly read the commemorative poems they had composed to celebrate Prince Casimir’s canonisation.2 All of them were published by the Academy press under the title Theatridium Poeticum Sanctissimo et Castissimo Poetae D[ivo] Casimiro (A Little Poetic Theatre for the Most Venerable and Pious Blessed Poet Casimir).3 Among the ninety-one poems four were composed by the Scottish students. Thomas Abercrombie wrote a poem entitled ‘S. Casimirus miles Christianus’; the poem ‘Anagramma ex nomine a S. Casimiri’ was created by the Scot Joannes Nicolaus Dizos (his origin was not indicated in the publication); the third contributor of Scottish origin was Patrick Abercrombie with the poem ‘Epitymbion;’ and finally Joannes Petrevius (who was not designated as a Scot in the printed edition) published ‘Grata perpetuitas – non Tutum patrocinium’.4
The process of the canonisation of Prince Casimir lasted for two decades and was concluded in 1621 when his name was included in the Missale Romanum and the Breviarium Romanum, which made him a saint of the whole Catholic Church rather than only within the boundaries of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This meant that students of various ethnic origins from the Academy eagerly seized the opportunity to engage in the celebration of the memory of the Polish-Lithuanian prince who had been adopted as a patron of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania but who did not have full sainthood at that time and had never been an object of veneration among the Catholics of Western Europe. By looking at how much Scottish and English Jesuits were keen to support and advance the religious traditions of the host state, the present study seeks to reveal the extent to which they aligned themselves with the Catholic community of Lithuania and became accustomed to the local religious tendencies.
1 The Teaching Staff of English and Scottish Origin at the Academy of Vilnius
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was subordinated to the Austrian Province of the Society of Jesus, but in 1574 the Superior General Everard Mercurian (1514–1580) created a separate Polish Province of the Jesuit Order covering the territories of Poland, Prussia, Lithuania and Muscovy, which existed in this form until the year of 1608 when the Lithuanian Province was separated from it. The Counter-Reformation in Poland-Lithuania took great advantage of educational exchange with other European countries. From its foundation as a Jesuit college in Vilnius in the late 1560s and upgraded to Academy in 1579, the institution attracted many foreign academics. It is worth noticing that Vilnius Academy offered Jesuit training of a level higher than other institutions of the region – those in Braniewo (Braunsberg) in Royal Prussia and Olomouc in Moravia – with a curriculum identical to that of the general school system of the Jesuit Order.5 Unlike the college in Braniewo, the Vilnius College had the studia superiora which provided more mature courses at an advanced level. The structure of the Academy of Vilnius can be seen in the 1592 description made by a former student from England Samuel Lewkenor (c.1571–1615):
Neere vnto the Church of S. Iohn Baptist, was lately erected a goodly and spacious Colledge, possessed by the Iesuites, in the base courtwherof are 6 schooles faire and large: the first for Grammer, the second for Poetrie, the third for Rhetorique, the fourth for Philosophie, the fift for Diuinitie, the sixt for cases of conscience, named of schoolemen Positiua Theologia. Therein also are many faire and spacious roomes, purposely prouided for publike disputations.6
Names of British academics and students have often been mentioned in the context of Anglo-Polish and Anglo-Lithuanian relations, but no picture has emerged of their role in the cultural development of the Grand Duchy. In the second half of the sixteenth century British recusants made much of education to re-establish Catholicism, and the Academy of Vilnius became an important academic centre on the Jesuit educational map, hosting a noticeable number of students of British origin. The ethnic composition of the first teaching staff varied markedly: there was a Croat, a Scot, an Irishman, a Belgian and two Czechs.7 The presence of English and Scottish Jesuits among those working in Vilnius Academy was particularly noticeable in the last decades of the sixteenth century, even though the employment of the majority of them in the institution was usually short-lived or intermittent. John Hay (c.1546–1608), a Scot from Aberdeenshire, was the first British Jesuit to be attached to the staff. He came to Vilnius on 4 July 1570,8 and taught rhetoric at the college from 1570 until February 1572, when he was sent on mission to Braniewo.9 In the early 1570s, Hay undertook a public dispute concerning the sacrament of the Eucharist with two Lithuanian Protestants, theologian Andreas Volanus (1530–1610) and poet and translator Andrzej Trzecieski (c.1530–1584), defending the dogma of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.10 The dispute was attended by a large number of the Protestant population of the town.11 Hay was appointed lecturer in philosophy in 1573 and held this position until 1575.12 He was an author of two collections of theses, published in Cracow in 1573 and 1574, which were to be used at disputations at Vilnius College during the inauguration of the academic years of 1573/1574 and 1574/1575.13 William Lambert, an English coadjutor brother, joined the college in 1571 and continued to hold this position until 1573; he died in Lithuania, as indicated in the necrology of the Society of Jesus.14 The English recusant Adam Brook (Brock), future rector of the Academy, arrived in Vilnius sometime between the years of 1574 and 1578, and there he pronounced his final vows as a Jesuit on 24 August 1578.15 The English Jesuit James Bosgrave (c.1548–1623) arrived in Vilnius in 1576 and was professor of mathematics until 1580. The Scot Robert Abercrombie (1536–1613), a fellow-graduate of John Hay from Saint Andrews and a teacher of grammar and rhetoric, stayed in Vilnius between 1575 and 1580.16 By 1580, all of them for different reasons left the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, when they came to the attention of John Rogers, an English agent in Poland, who asked Mikołaj Radziwiłł ‘the Red’ (1512–1584), the leader of the Protestants in Lithuania, for support in apprehending English recusants in the region.17 Adam Brook however returned to Vilnius in the early seventeenth century to take up the post of rector of the Academy in the period between 1602 and 1605.18 He was especially favoured by the Bishop of Vilnius and honoured at the Academy.19 In the late 1580s, John Howlett (c.1548–1589), instead of fulfilling his assigned mission in Transylvania, became professor of theology at the Academy in Vilnius, where he died on 14 September 1589.20 In 1590, Laurence Arthur Faunt (1553/4–1591), an English Jesuit theologian, was appointed professor of theology; he too died in Vilnius a year later on 28 February 1591.21 Another Englishman, Richard Singleton (c.1565–1602), was professor of dogmatic theology in Vilnius in 1600–1602, where he died during the plague on 13 April 1602.22
Every British member of the academic staff, except for William Lambert who was however highly valued by Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius (1504–1579) and to whom he served as a physician, had a university degree: Abercrombie and Hay had graduated from the University of Saint Andrews, Brook and Howlett were Oxford graduates.23 Additionally, Abercrombie attended Louvain before entering the Jesuit novitiate. Richard Singleton studied at Rheims, Rennes and the English College in Rome.24 Faunt graduated from Louvain and Munich, and went to the English College in Rome.25
Some of these Jesuits engaged in the life of the whole Jesuit province beyond the sphere of education. In 1579, Adam Brook was elected by the Polish Province as a delegate to attend the congregation of procurators held in Rome on 2 November 1579.26 William Good, who was not associated with Vilnius Academy and never went to Lithuania, together with Brook, was sent to represent the Province at the Fourth General Congregation on 7 February 1581 when the next Superior General was to be elected.27
In the last decades of the sixteenth and until the mid-seventeenth centuries, other English Jesuits worked at the Academy or resided in the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. According to the report by John Rogers on intelligence he had gathered in Königsberg in September 1580, ‘[the] Iesuit Confrers were most at Rome, more at Vilna and many in Brunsberge.’28 Apart from about those belonging to the Academy, there is only partial information about the presence of English and Scottish Catholics in the city. Rogers does mention among those suspected of belonging to the Jesuit society and residing in England one Partridge, a goldsmith, whose son lived in Vilnius and was ‘a favorer of Iesuiters.’29 English Jesuit Thomas Malins (or Maglius) died in Vilnius in 1600.30 Richard Gifford (c.1633–1697) and Christopher Robinson (c.1621–1685) joined the Jesuits in Vilnius on 5 September and 10 September 1647 respectively.31 Robert Forster studied theology at the Academy of Vilnius before he was professed of the four vows on 24 August 1632.32 In 1657, an English Jesuit, James Brent, died in Vilnius.33 As for other towns of Lithuania it is known that Simon Jordan of Irish origin was rector of the Jesuit College in Polotsk (Poło
2 English and Scottish Students in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The success of the Academy was owed to its international character and the high European standards of training it offered, rather than by a very high number of students enrolled. The peregrinatio academica was a common phenomenon among European countries as well as within Poland-Lithuania: many students were transferred from Braniewo or other Jesuit colleges of Central Europe to Vilnius to gain a university education and to be able to follow the wider curriculum.34 There are no surviving records on the representation of students in the Academy, but it is clear that some of the young men came from England and Scotland. According to research by Arūnas Grickevičius, during the period between 1585 and 1602 there were between 197 and 199 students in the Papal Seminary (a part of the Academy), ten of whom were from England and Scotland.35 As the seventeenth century progressed, these numbers faded. This was observed because the educational structures for British recusants were finally set up on a firmer basis in the first decades of the century, with two Scots colleges established in Rome and Salamanca, in addition to the existing English colleges in Rome and Douai.
The register of the seminary at Vilnius Academy compiled by Jan Poplatek listed fourteen British expatriates matriculated in the last decades of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. In contrast, the Jesuit College in Braniewo schooled more English and Scottish exiles: between 1579 and 1610, there were 25 students of British origin attending the school in this town of Royal Prussia.36 Not all students of the Academy in Vilnius were Jesuits: there was a large number of Protestants undertaking studies.37 There was only one British student registered in the 1580s: Andrew Lock, a Scot, matriculated at the college in Braniewo on 8 May 1582 and on 18 March 1584 he went to Vilnius to continue his studia superiora there.38 In the 1590s, the number of Britons admitted to the Academy increased rapidly. Overall, in 1590 there were 35 students of different nations matriculated at the seminary.39 Thomas Attomes (probably, Adams) from Shropshire in England studied at the Academy in 1590.40 The Englishman Gwalter Honsonus entered the Academy in 1590 to start studia inferiora but had to leave Vilnius in 1592 for reasons of health.41 Thomas Hathonus, an Englishman, spent a short period of time in Vilnius in 1592 before he was sent to the English College in Rome.42
Samuel Lewkenor, an Englishman mentioned above, enrolled at the Academy in 1592.43 It was not his first university on the Continent: during his educational peregrination Lewkenor visited many universities around East-Central Europe, as he highly appreciated the education provided by Jesuits. In Poplatek’s study he is described as a student of the seminary, but he hardly had any intention of becoming a Catholic priest nor of seeking to conduct missionary activities. He returned to England and later became a Member of the House of Commons.44 Two Scots, William Douglas and James Lindsey, were admitted to Braniewo on 6 August 1596 and they both were sent to Vilnius on 29 November 1600 to continue their studies. Douglas died in the rank of Ensign during the siege of Smolensk of 1609–1611. Lindsey became a Jesuit in 1601 and soon after he returned to Scotland where he died in 1624.45 Another two Scots, Thomas Abercrombie and David Leonard Kinnaird (Quinard), matriculated at the Jesuit school in Braniewo on 27 September 1599; on 28 December 1600, they embarked on a journey to Vilnius to continue their education at the Academy.46 In 1601, Kinnaird became a Jesuit; he was imprisoned in 1626 for two years after Braniewo was seized by King of Sweden Gustavus Adolphus; after his release he was recruited as a chaplain in the Irish regiment of Colonel James Butler, and very likely participated in military campaigns, first in Royal Prussia and Germany against the Swedes and not long afterwards in Poland against the Muscovites during the Smolensk War of 1632–1634. He died in Nieśwież in 1648.47 Butler, together with the Englishman Arthur Aston the Junior, was praised by the Protestant leader Krzysztof Radziwiłł (1585–1640) at the Sejm in March 1623 for their service under his command in the campaign of 1622, during which the town of Jelgava (Mitau) in the Duchy of Courland was captured.48 Patrick Abercrombie from Scotland studied in Vilnius in 1604, after spending five years at school in Braniewo from 1596 till 1601 when he quit his studies, but soon he resumed his education.49 The Scot Jan Petraeus (Joannes Petrevius) was among the scholars of the Academy in 1604.50 William Abercrombie and Thomas Duff, both from Scotland, studied in Vilnius until 19 June 1610 when they were sent to Braniewo.51 Edward Locke took his doctorate of philosophy at Vilnius Academy in 1650 and later became rector of the Irish College in Rome.52
3 The Contribution of English and Scottish Jesuits to Printing Culture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Not only did Scots and Englishmen work or study at the Academy, but they made an impact on the development of printing culture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and contributed to the laudatory and commemorative poetry of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Some publications issued by the printing press of the Academy of Vilnius provide additional information and cast some new light on the English and Scottish presence among the students. With the accession of Sigismund III Vasa to the Polish throne in 1587, the Jesuits of Poland-Lithuania produced a stream of complimentary propaganda about the new king. In 1589, the printing office of Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł ‘the Orphan’ (1549–1616), one of the most zealous Catholic defenders in the country, produced Gratulationes Serenissimo Ac Potentissimo Principi Sigismundo III … In … Vilnam adventu factae Ab Academia Vilne[n]si Societatis Iesu [Congratulations to the Most Serene and Powerful Sovereign Sigismund III … upon Arrival in Vilnius from Vilnius Academy of the Jesuit Order], a collection of eulogistic poems written by the students of Vilnius Academy in various languages.53 It was issued on the occasion of the visit of the newly elected King and Great Duke Sigismund to the capital of the Grand Duchy. In the collection there was one overtly panegyric poem in English, called ‘To the realme and people of poolande’, celebrating the accession of Sigismund.54 Based on the clumsiness of the verses and the fact that the names of some contributors provided at the end of the booklet were of Polish origin only, Wacław Borowy comes to the conclusion that the author was a Pole.55 Given the noticeable presence of English-speaking Catholics in Vilnius in the late sixteenth century, however, it was not entirely unlikely that the poem was composed by a person of English origin, albeit one without poetic talent.
William Sotheron, an Englishman, contributed to at least three publications issued by the Academy. In 1594, he wrote two poetic tributes in Latin on the occasions of the deaths of his fellow scholars: Łazarz Kmita, the son of the Palatine of Smolensk Filon Kmita Czarnobylski (c.1530–1587), and Adauctus Kownacki.56 In 1595, he was again among the contributors to express his grief about the deaths of Joannis Barscius, a fellow-student, and Jerzy Jurjewicz Chodkiewicz, the administrator of the Duchy of Samogitia.57 All the commemorative stanzas produced by him were in Latin verse and were short. Sotheron’s name cannot be found among the students in the seminary registry of the Academy but the publication clearly points both to his belonging to the institution and to the incompleteness of the known registry. Samuel Lewkenor published a poem on the death of Albrecht Radziwiłł, Duke of Ołyka and Nieśwież, in Threnodiae, in obitum illustris[simi] Sac[ri] Rom[ani] Imp[erii] principis et domini, d. Alberti Radziwil[i] ducis in Olyka et Nieswiz [Laments, on the Death of the Most Illustrious Prince of the Holy Roman Empire and Master, Sir Albrecht Radziwiłł, Prince of Nieśwież and Ołyka] printed in Vilnius in 1593.58
There is nothing surprising in the fact that poetic works by English and Scottish students appeared in print as part of the volumes produced by the Academy. Composing poems was part of the curriculum of early modern institutions,59 and similar examples could be found across Europe. Nevertheless, there are some cases when English or Scottish recusants published their literary works outside their training assignments. In 1605, Patrick Abercrombie, a student of Vilnius Academy, published a poem on the occasion of the wedding of a doctor of medicine James Arnott, a Scot, and Diana, a daughter of the resident of Vilnius Józef Sienkiewicz.60 Likewise, three publications authored by the Scottish poet Andrew Leech (or Loch, or Andrzej Loeaechius, Loechius, Lechowicz, d. 1637), a former student of Vilnius Academy, were printed in Vilnius in 1599 and 1612.61 In Lithuania, Leech very often chose to publish his poems in Protestant printing houses, and devoted part of his poetry to the members of the Radziwiłł family of both Calvinist and Catholic affiliations. Despite his links with the Calvinist branch of the Radziwiłłs, he was nevertheless one of the main suspects of the authorship of a pasquil entitled Exetasis Epistolae Nomine Regis Magnae Britanniae, Ad Omnes Christianos Monarchos, Principes, & Ordines, scriptae [The Ecstasy over the Letter written under the Name of the King of Great Britain, to all Christian Monarchs, Princes, and Orders], presumably printed in Braniewo.62 This publication, written under the pseudonym of Bartholus Pacenius, whose real identity has not been uncovered, repudiated the Oath of Allegiance devised by King James VI of Scotland and I of England in 1606 to increase state control over his Catholic subjects. The pasquil infuriated the English king, who was jealous of his international reputation, and significantly fuelled his repugnance toward Catholics.63 In April 1611, the English agent in Poland, Andrew Aidie, approached the Bishop of Warmia Simon Rudnicki (1552–1621), asking for help in discovering the author. The bishop alleged that he had read the book and felt it did not tarnish James’s reputation: ‘it was but controversies of religion.’64 Another two Jesuits suspected of producing the pasquil were Robert Abercrombie, a teacher of grammar and rhetoric at the Academy of Vilnius in the 1570s, and a Jesuit from Wales, Griffith Floyd, who was professor of philosophy at Braniewo in 1604–1606.65 When in August 1615 Floyd underwent a series of interrogations for his links with Braniewo, he claimed neither to have been in the town between 1609 and 1610 nor to have employed a printer, except for publishing philosophical theses and an oration of Saint Bernard.66 Floyd presumed that the secret author was M.M. Maillan, ‘a Gentleman of the Pope’s Chamber’, who had presented himself as an agent of the Duke of Lorraine.67
Although the number of Scots and Englishmen enrolled at the Academy or attached to the academic staff declined by the middle of the seventeenth century, the British connections in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania did not cease and the outcomes of exchange were unveiled already at the beginning of the seventeenth century. In 1601 or 1602, when Robert Abercrombie acted as Scottish Jesuit superior, in his letter to Father General Claudio Acquaviva (1543–1615) and Acquaviva’s assistant for Northern and Eastern Europe George Duras, he pointed out that students in Poland, Lithuania and Prussia were allowed to attend Protestant sermons so as to improve their ability of challenging the beliefs and practices of their rivals in theological debates. He suggested introducing such a practice for some ‘more spiritual sons’ in Scotland.68 In another example of cultural ‘translation’ during the mid-seventeenth century a part of the oeuvre written by Maciej Casimir Sarbiewski (1595–1640), a Jesuit priest of Vilnius Academy and a renowned Polish poet, was translated into English by George Hils to express his royalist sentiments. It was printed in one of the most successful London printing offices, that of Humphrey Moseley, in 1646.69 This bears evidence that textual exchange continued into the seventeenth century, despite the lack of any visible flow of English and Scottish Catholics to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
4 The Construction of the Martyrological Discourse in Poland-Lithuania and Its Connections to England
Polish-Lithuanian Jesuits paid particular attention to the use of the printing press, exploiting it fully to bolster the authority of the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth. They were quite successful in utilizing the power of the press to speed up the triumph of the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth under Sigismund III. The networks established by Polish-Lithuanian Catholics channelled a great amount of information, leading to the emergence of new literary genres and discourses.70 Directing their gaze towards contemporary English martyrs to construct narratives of local Polish-Lithuanian martyrdom was a compelled measure, caused by a growing popularity of foreign Protestant martyrologies,71 which not only began to circulate within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the second half of the sixteenth century, but some of which were also translated into Polish.72 In 1577, the Provincial of the Polish Province of the Jesuit Order Francisco Sunyer asked his fellow Jesuit Piotr Skarga (1536–1612), an ecclesiastic leader of the Counter-Reformation in Poland-Lithuania, to produce a volume of the lives of the saints based on De probatis sanctorum historiis [Concerning the True Stories of the Saints] by the German Carthusian hagiographer Lorenz Sauer (Laurentius Surius).73 The outcome of this endeavor became Żywoty Swiętych starego y nowego zakonu [Lives of the saints of the old and new covenant], issued in the Catholic printing press of Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł ‘the Orphan’ in Vilnius in 1579.74 In the preface, Skarga explained that he considered daily readings of the lives of the saints, which had not existed in a written form in the Polish language before, as an essential tool for the affirmation of the authority of the saints and for the emulation of their lives. Under the influence of Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius, who had strong contacts with English recusants on the Continent, the author paid particular attention to the lives of the saints from the British Isles.75 Hosius, whose theology was prominently featured in polemic literature in England, became an important opponent for English Protestant theologians. During the 1560s, he was attacked for his theology by Bishop of Salisbury John Jewel, the clergyman and author John Barthlet, the theologian William Fulke, as well as by the famous historian and martyrologist John Foxe in 1578.76 Two of Hosius’s writings, Opus elegantissimum varias nostri temporis sectas & haereses ab origine recensens and De expresso Dei verbo libellus his temporibus accommodatissimus,77 were translated into English and printed in 1565 and 1567 respectively. The former work was published in English translation under the title of A Most Excellent Treatise of the Begynnyng of Heresyes in Oure Tyme by the English controversialist Richard Shacklock in the Spanish Netherlands and smuggled into England.78 Shacklock added to the original dedication to Sigismund II Augustus a dedication to Queen Elizabeth. In 1566, the Church of England clergyman John Bartlett (Barthlet) published a reply to this translation under the title The Pedegrewe of Heretiques wherein is Truely and Plainely Set out, the First Roote of Heretiques Begon in the Church.79 The other work by Hosius was translated by Thomas Stapleton, a Roman Catholic theologian, and printed in Louvain in 1567 under the title Of the expresse word of God. A shorte, but a most excellent treatyse and very necessary for this tyme.80
Żywoty Swiętych gained an importance in the religious culture of Poland-Lithuania, and new editions appeared several times in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, which Skarga expanded with additional information from English sources.81 At least six editions were issued up to 1612, the year of Skarga’s death.82 Of particular interest is the final part of the book, which is entitled ‘A supplement about those lives of the holy martyrs who suffered for Christ, the truth and the Church during our ages’ and contains the depiction of the persecution by Protestant authorities of English and French Catholics, and Jesuits abroad.83 In the edition of 1585 of Żywoty Swiętych, as the connection that would allow the creation of a suitable background for introducing martyrological narratives in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Skarga utilized the stories of the English Jesuit priest Edmund Campion (1540–1581), who was executed by the Elizabethan regime, and of James Bosgrave, former professor of mathematics at Vilnius Academy, who was imprisoned upon arrival in England together with Campion and other Jesuits, but was released following the interference of King of Poland, Stephen Báthory. By bringing to light the connection between Edmund Campion, who had never visited either Poland or Lithuania, and James Bosgrave, Skarga sought to adopt the figure of Campion as one of the local martyrs in order to create a martyrological narrative applicable to the situation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth where legislation, introduced by the Confederation of Warsaw of 1573, did not permit persecution of heterodoxy and therefore instances of violence against either Catholics or Protestants were not common.84 Furthermore, Campion’s writings, specifically his Rationes Decem, written in 1581, were widely exploited in Protestant-Catholic polemics in the Commonwealth. Not only was Rationes Decem printed in Latin in Vilnius in 1583,85 but was also translated into Polish by Piotr Skarga himself as well as by Gaspar Wilkowski, a Catholic convert from Antitrinitarianism.86 Both translations were issued by the same Catholic printing press in Vilnius in 1584. While Wilkowksi’s translation of Rationes Decem aimed to refute the doctrine of the Antitrinitarians,87 Skarga’s translation had a different purpose. On the one hand, by detailing Campion’s martyrdom he aimed to demonstrate atrocities committed by contemporary Protestant regimes against Catholics. On the other hand, by connecting Campion with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth through the Catholic understanding of the Church as a Mystical Body of Christ in which Catholics of England and Poland-Lithuania were spiritually bound as one, he attempted to create the context in which the laity would come to realise the risk for any Catholic to be persecuted for their faith.
5 Conclusion
This present study has aimed to examine sixteenth-century Anglo-Lithuanian Catholic ties, revealing the influences of those contacts on the print culture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. As the Counter-Reformation solidly took root in both parts of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, offering safe havens to recusants from England and Scotland, profound British-Lithuanian Catholic ties were forged after the foundation of Vilnius Academy in 1579. All the publications produced with the involvement of British Jesuit students suggest that they were accustomed to life in Vilnius Academy as much as other foreign and local students and actively participated in the corporate life of the institution.88 Many Englishmen and Scots were well aware that the wealthiest Lithuanian magnates, who professed Catholicism, were among the leading defenders of the Counter-Reformation. It would be fallacious to assert, however, that English and Scottish Catholics perceived the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as a purely Catholic state. In 1580, William Shepreve, a Catholic priest and scholar, who accompanied the English Catholic scholar Gregory Martin from Douai to Rome, sent a report to the rector of the English College in Rome. In it he wrote about Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł ‘the Orphan’, mistakenly calling him ‘Prince or greate Duke of Lithuania,’ and his stay in Bologna: ‘This man what with the good diligence of the Jesuites […] and other good instructions, hath so profited herein, that he resolved with him self to renounce all the errors, the Schismatical and Diabolical and Paganical acts and opinions of that of his corrupted country.’89 In contrast to William Shepreve, upon his return to England Samuel Lewkenor, a former student of the Academy of Vilnius, wrote and published in 1600 A Discourse not Altogether Vnprofitable, nor Vnpleasant for Such as are Desirous to Know the Situation and Customes of Forraine Cities without Trauelling to See Them Containing a Discourse of All Those Citties wherein Doe Flourish at This Day Priuiledged Vniuersities, in which he commented on the religious situation in Vilnius and on one of the Protestant members of the Radziwiłł family: ‘Therein also is allowed one church for the Protestants, because the Woywod or Count Palatine thereof, the noblest of the Radziuilli professeth (if any) that religion.’90
Although in the second half of the sixteenth century Protestantism was one of the major confessional cultures of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, having gained a significant foothold, the connections between English and Lithuanian Protestants were generally fortuitous. In contrast, the relationship between English recusants and Lithuanian Catholics was better structured, in comparison with occasional encounters between the Protestants of Lithuania and England, and the presence of English and Scottish Catholics within the Grand Duchy was much more noticeable than that of persons with a Protestant affiliation. Furthermore, Polish-Lithuanian Jesuits were more successful in exploiting the power of the press in advancing the triumph of the Catholic Church in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, engaging not only local writers but also authors of various ethnic origins. As a result, the networks established by Polish-Lithuanian Catholics with their counterparts abroad facilitated textual transmission between the countries, resulting in the construction of a martyrological narrative applicable to the situation in Poland-Lithuania.
Initiated by Sigismund III who sought to renew the cult of Saint Casimir, in 1602 Clement VIII issued the brief and approved the decision of the Sacred Congregation of Rites to proclaim the day of 4 March as Casimir’s feast, but only within the Commonwealth. K. Paul Žygas, ‘Dogma, Art and Politics: Roman aspects of St. Casimir’s Chapel in Vilnius’, Journal of Baltic Studies, 27 (1996), pp. 175–212, here p. 182.
Ibid., p. 183.
The edition of Theatridium Poeticum was bound with Theatrum S. Casimiri: In quo ipsius prosapia, vita, miracula, et illustris pompa in solemni eiusdem apotheoseos instauratione, Vilnae Lithuaniae metropoli, V. Id. Maij, anno D[omi]ni M.DC.IV. instituta graphice proponuntur … ([Vilnae]: Typographicis Academiae Societatis Iesu, [1604]), USTC 250240; Jan Okoń, ‘Pokłosie Skargowskie: “książki polskie” o św. Kazimierzu Jagiellończyku … (na tropach druku i egzemplarza)’, Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis / Studia ad Bibliothecarum Scientiam Pertinentia, 11 (2013), pp. 44–60, here p. 58, n. 42.
Theatridium Poeticum, fols. 31, 38, 50–51, 58, 65–66; Stanislaw Rostowski, Lituanicarum Societas Jesu historiarum libri decem (Paris: Victor Palmė, G. Lebrocquy, 1877), pp. 439–440. It should be pointed out that according to Poplatek Joannes Nicolaus Dizos was a Swede: Jan Poplatek, ‘Wykaz alumnów seminarium papieskiego w Wilnie 1582–1773’, Ateneum Wileńskie, 11 (1936), pp. 218–282, here p. 246.
Oskar Garstein, Rome and the Counter-Reformation in Scandinavia: Jesuit Educational Strategy, 1553–1622 (Leiden: Brill, 1992), p. 242.
Samuel Lewkenor, A Discourse not Altogether Vnprofitable, nor Vnpleasant for Such as are Desirous to Know the Situation and Customes of Forraine Cities without Trauelling to See Them Containing a Discourse of All Those Citties wherein Doe Flourish at this Day Priuiledged Vniuersities: Written by Samuel Levvkenor Gentleman (London: I[ohn] W[indet], 1600), USTC 514818, fol. 55r.
Jakub Niedźwiedź, Kultura literacka Wilna (1323–1655): Retoryczna organizacja miasta (Kraków: Universitas, 2012), p. 173.
László Lukács, Catalogi personarum et officiorum provinciae Austriae S. I. T. I (1551–1600) (Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 1978), p. 327.
Lukács, Catalogi personarum.
Ludwik Grzebień, Encyklopedia wiedzy o jezuitach na ziemiach Polski i Litwy, 1564–1995: www.jezuici.krakow.pl/cgi-bin/rjbo?b=enc&n=2126&q=0 (last accessed 17 July 2022); Rostowski, Lituanicarum Societas Jesu, p. 41.
Ibid., pp. 41–42.
Alasdair Roberts, ‘Hay, John’, ODNB: www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12724?docPos=2 (last accessed 5 March 2017); Lukács, Catalogi personarum, pp. 321, 343.
Roman Darowski, ‘John Hay, SJ, and the Origins of Philosophy in Lithuania’, The Innes Review, 31 (1980), pp. 7–15, here pp. 10–11.
Lukács, Catalogi personarum, pp. 326, 344; Henry Foley, Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesus: Historic Facts Illustrative of the Labours and Sufferings of its Members in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, 7:1: General Statistics of the Province; and Collectanea, Giving Biographical Notices of its Members and many Irish and Scotch Jesuits (London: Burns and Oates, 1882), p. 431.
Thomas M. McCoog, ‘And Touching Our Society’: Fashioning Jesuit Identity in Elizabethan England (Toronto: Pontific Institute of Medieval Studies, 2013), p. 125, n. 13.
Martin Murphy, ‘Robert Abercromby, S. J. (1536–1613) and the Baltic Counter-Reformation’, The lnnes Review, 50 (Spring 1999), pp. 58–75, here p. 63.
Hanna Mazheika, ‘“An Earnest Gospeller” and “a Dignified Martyr”: Networks of Textual Exchange between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and England, 1560s–1580s’, in Richard Butterwick and Wioletta Pawlikowska (eds.), Social and Cultural Relations in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Microhistories (New York, Abington: Routledge, 2019), p. 169.
Grzebień, Encyklopedia: www.jezuici.krakow.pl/cgi-bin/rjbo?b=enc&n=7371&q=0 (last accessed 2 July 2022).
Foley, Records of the English Province, 7:1, p. 88.
Martin Murphy, ‘Howlett [Howlet], John’, ODNB: www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14000?docPos=2 (last accessed 12 November 2022).
Martin Murphy, ‘Faunt, Arthur’, ODNB: www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/9210?docPos=1 (last accessed 12 November 2016).
Grzebień, Encyklopedia: www.jezuici.krakow.pl/cgi-bin/rjbo?b=enc&n=6137&q=0 (last accessed 14 March 2017).
Murphy, ‘Robert Abercromby, S.J.’, p. 61; James Lenaghan, ‘“The Sweetness of Polish Liberty”: Sixteenth-Century British Jesuit Exiles to Poland-Lithuania’, Reformation, 15:1 (2010), pp. 133–150, here p. 139.
Ibid., p. 140.
Marin Murphy, ‘Faunt, Arthur’, ODNB: www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/9210?docPos=1 (last accessed 12 November 2016).
McCoog, ‘And Touching Our Society’, p. 126.
Rostowski, Lituanicarum Societas Jesu, pp. 89, 416.
John Rogers to Francis Walsingham, 10 October 1580, Elbing, Charles H. Talbot (ed.), Elementa ad Fontium Editiones, 4: Res Polonicæ Elisabetha I Angliæ regnante conscriptæ ex Archivis Publicis Londoniarum (Rome: Institutum Historicum Polonicum Romæ, 1962), p. 18.
Ibid., p 33.
Henry Foley, Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesus: Historic Facts Illustrative of the Labours and Sufferings of Its Members in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, 7:2: Facts Illustrative of the Labours and Sufferings of its Members in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London: Burns and Oates, 1883), p. 962.
Grzebień, Encyklopedia: www.jezuici.krakow.pl/cgi-bin/rjbo?b=enc&n=1759&q=0, www.jezuici.krakow.pl/cgi-bin/rjbo?b=enc&n=5603&q=0 (last accessed 14 March 2017).
Foley, Records of the English Province, 7:1, pp. 275–276.
Ibid., p. 81.
Garstein, Rome and the Counter-Reformation, p. 242.
The Vilnius Pontifical Seminary was set up as a part of the Academy of Vilnius in 1583. It offered education for young people who seemed to be destined for clerical or priestly vocation. Józef Bieliński, Uniwersytet Wileński (l579–1831) (3 vols., Kraków: W. L. Anczyca i Spółka, 1899–1900), 1, p. 83. Arūnas Grickevičius, ‘The Seminary of Gregory XIII in Vilnius (1583–1655)’, Lithuanian Historical Studies, 2 (1997), pp. 72–96, here pp. 79–80.
Among these students there were twenty-three Scots. See: Alphons Bellesheim, History of the Catholic Church of Scotland (3 vols., Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons, 1889), 3, pp. 455–456. James Lenaghan mentions two other students of British origin; they both entered the Jesuit Society in Braniewo but one of them died at a young age; the other one was the native of Poland-Lithuanian but his parents were of Scottish origin, and there is no information if he was a student at the Jesuit college: Lenaghan, ‘The Sweetness of Polish Liberty’, p. 141.
Tomasz Kempa, ‘Religious Relations and the Issue of Religious Tolerance in Poland and Lithuania in the 16th and 17th Century’, Sarmatia Europea, 1 (2010), pp. 31–66, here p. 44.
Jan Poplatek, ‘Wykaz alumnów’, p. 224.
Jan Poplatek, ‘Zarys dziejów Seminarium Papieskiego w Wilnie 1585–1773’, Ateneum Wileńskie, 7 (1930), pp. 170–228, here p. 177. Jakub Niedźwiedź, referring to the study of Ludwik Piechnik, Dzieje Akademii Wileńskiej: Początki Akademii Wileńskiej, 1570–1599 (Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Jesu, 1983), provides the number of 600 scholars admitted to Vilnius Academy in the early 1590s. This estimation is notoriously slippery. According to the list of students provided by Poplatek, during the period between 1585 and 1601 there were 177 known scholars attending the institution. But it should be remembered that Poplatek’s list contains only the names of those who attended the seminary at the Academy. Niedźwiedź, Kultura literacka, p. 175.
Poplatek, ‘Wykaz alumnów’, p. 232.
Ibid., p. 233.
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 238.
Alan Davidson and Simon Healy, ‘Lewknor, Samuel (1571–?by1615), of Upton Cressett, Salop’, in The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1604–1629, ed. by Andrew Thrush and John P. Ferris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010): www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1604-1629/member/lewknor-samuel-1571-1615 (last accessed 18 July 2017).
Poplatek, ‘Wykaz alumnów’, p. 242.
Ibid.
Ibid.; Stephen Wright, ‘Butler, James’, ODNB: www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/4190?doc Pos=7 (last accessed 15 May 2017); Worthington, British and Irish Experiences, pp. 95–96; Rostowski, Lituanicarum Societas Jesu, p. 441.
Robert I. Frost, ‘Scottish Soldiers, Poland-Lithuania and the Thirty Year’s War’, in Steve Murdoch (ed.), Scotland and the Thirty Years’ War: 1618–1648 (Leiden: Brill, 2001), p. 207.
Poplatek, ‘Wykaz alumnów’, p. 245.
Ibid., p. 246.
Ibid., p. 247.
Foley, Records of the English Province, 7:2, pp. 39–40.
Gratulationes Serenissimo Ac Potentissimo Principi Sigismundo III … In … Vilnam adventu factae Ab Academia Vilne[n]si Societatis Iesu (Wilno: Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł, 1589), USTC 250194; Wacław Borowy, ‘Prześladowani katolicy angielscy i szkoccy w Polsce XVI wieku’, Przegląd Powszechny, 219 (1938), pp. 110–124, here p. 117.
Gratulationes Serenissimo, sig. Fiir.
Borowy, ‘Prześladowani’, p. 117. In contrast, the authorship of some poems in Finnish, Swedish and Latin was determined and ascribed to the students of Scandinavian origin matriculated at the Academy, see: Garstein, Rome and the Counter-Reformation, pp. 257–260; Isak Collijn, Sveriges bibliografi intill år 1600 (3 vols., Uppsala: Svenska Litteratursällskapet, 1927–1938), 3, pp. 97–98.
Parthenicae Sodalitatis in Academia Vilnensi Societatis Jesu: Threni in Exequiis Nobilissimi Clarissimiq. Adolescentis Lazari Philonis Kmitae Czarnobylski Palatinidae Smolenscen; eiusdemq; Academiae Alumni (Wilno: Ex officina academica societatis Jesu, 1594), USTC 250351, sig. F2v–F3r; Karol Estreicher, Bibliografia Staropolska: www.estreicher.uj.edu.pl/staropolska/baza/wpis/?sort=nazwisko_imie&order=1&id=141330&offset=0&index=2 (last accessed 03 October 2015); Oratio in exequiis nobilis et generosi adolescentis Adaucti Kownacki, studiosi academiae Vilnensis S. J. a Jacobo Evcholcio habita Vilnae in aede sacra D. Joannis ad stvdiosam ivventvtem III kal. aprilis MDXCIV (Wilno: Ex officina academica Societ. Jesu, 1594), sig. B4r; Ramunė Dambrauskaitė, ‘A Latin Funeral Oration from Vilnius (1594): Edited, with introduction and notes’, Humanistica Lovaniensia, 44 (1995), pp. 250–269, here pp. 255–256, 269.
Funebris Laudatio Et Threnodiae In Exequias … Joannis Barscii A Studiosa Iuventute Conscriptae In Academia Vilnensi Societatis Iesu (Vilnae, offic. Acad. S. J., 1595), USTC 250357, sig. Dv; Parentalia in Obitvm Illvstris et Magnifici Domini D. Georgii Chodkievicii Generalis Capitanei Samogitiae. etc. etc. A Sodalibvs Congregationis Parthenicae, Academiae Viinensis, Societatis Jesv, mortem sodalis svi et moderatoris qvondam vigilantissimi, deflentibvs, conscripta (Wilno: typographia Academiae Societatis Jesu, 1595), USTC 250366; Estreicher, Bibliografia Staropolska: www.estreicher.uj.edu.pl/staropolska/baza/wpis/?sort=nazwisko_imie&order=1&id=188832&offset=0&index=3 (last accessed 3 October 2015).
Threnodiae in obitum illustrislsimij Sac[ri] Rom[ani] Imp[erii] principis et domini, d. Alberti Radziwil[i] ducis in Olyka et Nieswiz, supremi M.D. Lit. marschalci, CaunenĮsis] et Romburgen[sis] etc. capitanei … (Wilno: Ex officina Academica Societatis lesu, 1593), USTC 250344, sig. G1r–v.
Michael Stolberg, ‘The many uses of writing: A humanist physician in sixteenth-century Prague’, in Andrew Mendelsohn, Annemarie Kinzelbach, and Ruth Schilling (eds.), Civic Medicine: Physician, Polity, and Pen in Early Modern Europe (London: Routledge, 2019), p. 71.
Patricius Abircrumbeus, Epithalamium in nuptias nobilis et excellent. viri D. Jacobi Arnotti Scoti medicinae doct. peritissimi, nec non honestissimae et pudicissimae virginis Dianae Sienkiewiciae, Josephi Sienkiewicii viri clarissimae perillustris civitatis Vilnensis civis primarii filiae, Vilnae celebratas. A Patricio Abircrumbeo Scoto, ejusdem sponsi nepote grati animi testificationis erga scripta et oblata (Vilnae: apud Joann. Karcanum, 1605), USTC 250246.
Andrzej Loeaechius studied at Vilnius Academy in 1584. For his biography and literary activities see, Agnieszka Borysowska, ‘Andrzej Loeaechius i jego twórczość poetycka (XVI/XVII w.)’, Slavia Occidentalis, 54 (1997), pp. 17–28. Andrzej Loeaechius, Epithalamium in nuptias Illustrissimi et Magnifici Domini D. Leonis Sapiechae, Cancellarii Magni Duc. Lit. Slonimscen. Markow. Pernavien. Miedzialien. etc. Capitanei: Et maiorum splendore Clariss: Virginis Elisabethae Radivillae, Illustrissimi Principia D. Christophori Radivilli Ducis Bierzarvm et Dubinki, Palatini Vilnensis, exercituum M. D. Lit. Generalis Solecensis, Urzendouiensis Capitanei nec non tenutarij Kokenhausensis, filiae Andreae Loaechii Scoti (Vilnae: in officina Salomonis Sultzeri,1599), USTC 250400; idem, Schediasmata duo quorum altero Illustriss. D. Reverend. in Christo Patris Nicolai Pac Samogitiae Episc. Encomium continetur, altero Perill. et Magn. D. Hieronymi Wołłowicz M. D. L. Supremi Thesaurarii Eudoxia exhibetur. Utrumque ex nominum eorundem Anagrammatismis ab Andrea Loaechio Scoto concinnatum (Vilnae: apud Josephum Kartzan, 1612), USTC 250294; idem, Schediasmata II Alterum Exequiis principis majorum splendore Illustriss: propriis Virtutibus Clarissim: D. Elizabeth Radziwiłłównae Celsissimae Memoriae Principis Christophori Radziwilli Ducis Birzarum et Dubinki, Palatini Vilnensis et Exercituum M. D. L. pref. Gener. filiae Illustr: Herois D. Leonis Sapiehae Mag. Duc. Lithuan. Mag. Cancell. Mohyloviensis &c. Capitanei Conjugis Desideratissimae. Alterum Memoriae Summi Viri Joannis Petri Sapiehae Capitanei Uswiatensis etc. Ducis copiarum quae pro Sigismundo III Poloniae et Sueciae Rege in Moscos seditionis socios arma gesserunt, posthumi honoris ergo ab Andrea Loeaechio Scoto facta dicata (Vilnae: apud Petrum Blastum Anno 1612), USTC 250295.
Bartholus Pacenius, Exetasis Epistolae Nomine Regis Magnae Britanniae, Ad Omnes Christianos Monarchos, Principes, & Ordines, scriptae: quae, Praefationis monitoriae loco, ipsius Apologiae pro iuramento fidelitatis, praefixa est (Montibus: Adamus Gallus, 1609 and 1610), USTC 1506542, 1506678. For more information on this publication and surrounding events, see: Martin Murphy, ‘James VI and I, the Scottish Jesuit, and the Polish Pasquils’, in Teresa Bela, Clarinda E. Calma and Jolanta Rzegocka (eds.), Publishing Subversive Texts in Elizabethan England and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Leiden: Brill, 2016), pp. 34–36.
Marc’ Antonio Correr to the Doge and Senate, 9 June 1610, London, ‘Venice: June 1610, 1–15’, in Horatio F. Brown (ed.), Calendar of State Papers Relating To English Affairs in the Archives of Venice, 11: 1607–1610 (London: Longman, 1904), pp. 498–506 British History Online: www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/venice/vol11/pp498-506 (last accessed 8 June 2017); Cyndia Susan Clegg, Press Censorship in Jacobean England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 79.
Andrew Aidie to Robert Cecil, 15 April 1611, Danzig, Charles H. Talbot (ed.), Elementa ad Fontium Editiones, 6: Res Polonicæ Iacobo I Angliæ regnante conscriptæ ex Archivis Publicis Londoniarum (Rome: Institutum Historicum Polonicum Romæ, 1962), p. 102.
Patrick Gordon to James I, 29 October 1610, Danzig, ibid., p. 79; Grzebień, Encyklopedia: www.jezuici.krakow.pl/cgi-bin/rjbo?b=enc&q=FLOIDUS&f=1 (last accessed 27 June 2021).
Mary Anne Everett Green (ed.), Calendar of State Papers Domestic, James I, 1611–1618 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1858), pp. 303, 305.
Ibid.
Robert Abercromby to Claudio Acquaviva and George Duras, [s.d. ca. 1601/1602], [s.l.], Ginevra Crosignani, Thomas M. McCoog and Michael Questier (eds.), Recusancy and Conformity in Early Modern England: Manuscript and Printed Sources in Translation (Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 2010), pp. xxix, 286, 287.
Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, The Odes of Casimire Translated by G.H. (London: Humphrey Moseley, 1646); Krzysztof Fordoński, ‘The Subversive Power of Father Matthias: The Poetry of Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski as Vehicle for Political Propaganda in England of the 17th Century’, in Jacek Fabiszak et al. (eds.), Crossroads in Literature and Culture (Berlin: Springer, 2013), pp. 387–397, here pp. 391–392. There were some other translations of some of Sarbiewski’s poems in the seventeenth century. See: George Gömöri, The Polish Swan Triumphant: Essays on Polish and Comparative Literature from Kochanowski to Norwid (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013), p. 108.
For the detailed analysis of the adoption of foreign martyrologies to the religious situation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, see, Mazheika, ‘An Earnest Gospeller’, pp. 169–182.
Mirosława Hanusiewicz-Lavallee, ‘Recusant Prose in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century’, in Bela, Calma and Rzegocka (eds.), Publishing Subversive Texts, pp. 18–19.
See, Mazheika, ‘An Earnest Gospeller’, pp. 170–174.
Francis J. Thompson, ‘The Popularity of Peter Skarga’s Lives of the Saints among the East Slavs’, in T. Soldatjenkova and E. Waegemans (eds.), For East is East: Liber Amicorum Wojciech Skalmowski (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta) (Leuven: Peeters, 2003), p. 122; Laurentius Surius, De probatis sanctorum historiis, partim ex tomis aloysii lipomani, doctissimi episcopi, partim etiam ex egregiis manuscriptis codicibus, quarum permultae antehàc nunquàm in lucem prodiêre, nunc recèns optima fide collectis per f. Laurentium surium carthusianum, tomus secundus, complectens sanctos mensium martii et aprilis. (Köln: apud Johann Quentel (heirs of), 1571), USTC 631112.
Piotr Skarga, Żywoty Swiętych starego y nowego zakonu z pisma świętego y z poważnych pisarzow y Doktorow koscielnych wybranych. Cz. 2 (Wilno: druk Mikołaja Krzysztofa Radziwiłła, 1579), USTC 250130.
Stanisław Windakiewicz, ‘Skarga i Anglicy’, Sprawozdania z Czynności i Posiedzeń Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności, 25:4 (1920), pp. 1–8. For more details on the ties between Hosius and English Catholics, see: Urszula Szumska, Anglia a Polska w epoce humanizmu i reformacji (Związki kulturalne) (Lwόw: Skład Głόwny w Księgarni Krawczyńskiego, 1938), pp. 94–98; Clarinda E. Calma, ‘Stanisław Hozjusz jako Patron I Protektor Elżbietańskich Rekuzantów’, in Tomasz Garwoliński (ed.), Iubilaeum Warmiae et Bibliothecae (Olsztyn: Wydawnictwo Wyższego Seminarium Duchowego Metropolii Warmińśkiej ‘Hosianum’, 2016), pp. 28–41.
Hanusiewicz-Lavallee, ‘Recusant Prose’, p. 16; idem, ‘Brytania i Sarmacja – na krańcach Europy, Wśród krajów Północy’, in Mirosława Hanusiewicz-Lavallee (ed.), Kultura Pierwszej Rzeczypospolitej wobec narodów germańskich, słowiańskich i naddunajskich: Mapa spotkań, przestrzenie dialogu (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, 2015), p. 135.
Stanisław Hozjusz, Opus elegantissimum varias nostri temporis sectas et haereses ab origine recensens (Paris: ex officina Jean Foucher, 1559), USTC 152717; idem, De expresso Dei verbo libellus his temporibus accommodatissimus; item, Dialogus trimembris, isque elegantissimus, hac aetate pernecessarius, de communione sacrae Eucharistiae sub utraque specie, de sacerdotum conjugio (Paris: apud Jean Foucher, 1560), USTC 152837.
Stanisław Hozjusz, A Most Excellent Treatise of the Begynnyng of Heresyes in Oure Tyme, Compyled by the Reuerend Father in God Stanislaus Hosius Byshop of Wormes in Prussia: To the Moste Renomed Prynce Lorde Sigismund Myghtie Kyng of Poole, Greate Duke of Luten and Russia, Lorde and Heyre of All Prussia, Masouia, Samogitia &c. Translated out of Laten in to Englyshe by Richard Shacklock M. of Arte, and Student of the Ciuil Lawes, and Intituled by Hym: The Hatchet of Heresies (Antwerp: AEg. Diest, 1565), USTC 407611; Peter Holmes, ‘Shacklock, Richard’, ODNB: www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/25188?docPos=2 (last accessed 7 March 2017).
John Barthlet, The Pedegrewe of Heretiques wherein is Truely and Plainely Set out, the First Roote of Heretiques Begon in the Church, Since the Time and Passage of the Gospell, Together with an Example of the Ofspring of the Same. Perused and Alowed According to the Order Appoynted in the Queenes Maiesties Iniunctions (London: Henry Denham, 1566), USTC 506448; Christopher Highley, Catholics Writing the Nation in Early Modern Britain and Ireland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 43–45.
Stanisław Hozjusz, Of the expresse word of God: A shorte, but a most excellent treatyse and very necessary for this tyme (Louvain: Jean Bogard, 1567), USTC 411358.
Hanusiewicz-Lavallee, ‘Recusant Prose’, p. 19.
There is no agreement on the number of the editions published before Skarga’s death. Karol Estreicher provides the number of nine: Karol Estreicher, Bibliografia Polska: XIX. stólecia: www.estreicher.uj.edu.pl/skany/?dir=dane_xix_index|4 (last accessed 10 October 2015). According to Hieronim E. Wyczawski, the 1610 edition was the seventh one and the next edition did not appear before 1615, see: Hieronim E. Wyczawski, ‘Piotr Skarga’, in Hieronim E. Wyczawski (ed.), Słownik polskich teologów katolickich, (4 vols., Warszawa: Akademia Teologii Katolickiej, 1983), 4, p. 86. The same number is provided by Thompson, while she indicates that the editions of 1604 and 1612–1613 were listed by some scholars as nonexistent, see: Thompson, ‘The Popularity’, p. 141 n. 82. Janusz Tazbir considers the 1610 edition to have been the sixth one: Janusz Tazbir, Piotr Skarga, Szermierz kontrreformacji (Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo „Wiedza Powszechna‟, 1978), p. 101. For the editions of the Acts and Monuments, see: David Loewenstein, Treacherous Faith: The Specter of Heresy in Early Modern English Literature and Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 105.
Piotr Skarga, Żywoty Swiętych Cz. 2, fol. 1122.
For the detailed examination of the function of the translations, see, Mazheika, ‘An Earnest Gospeller’, pp. 175–178.
Edmund Campion, Rationes decem, quibus fretus certamen obtulit in causa fidei Edmundus Campianus e Societate Jesu (Wilno: Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł, 1583), USTC 240322.
Idem, Dziesiec wywodow dla ktorych Edmundus Kampianus z Londynu S. I. wszystkie heretyki co nauczensze w Angliey, na dysputatia okolo wiary wyzwal (Wilno: druk. M. Ch. Radziwila, 1584), USTC 250159; idem, Dziesiec mocnych dowodow, jz adwersarze kosciola powszechnego, w porzadney o wierze dysputacyey upasc musza [Vilnius: typ. Mikołaj Krzysztof Radziwiłł, 1584], USTC 250154.
For a detailed analysis of the translation, see Clarinda E. Calma, ‘Communicating Across Communities Explicitation in Gaspar Wilkowski’s Polish Translation of Edmund Campion’s Rationes Decem’, Journal of Jesuit Studies, 1 (2014), pp. 589–606.
For the research on Scandinavian students in Vilnius Academy, see Garstein, Rome and the Counter-Reformation, pp. 233–265.
George B. Parks (ed.), Gregory Martin’s Roma Sancta 1581 (Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1969), p. 263.
Lewkenor, A Discourse not Altogether Vnprofitable, fol. 55v.