Preface IX
Acknowledgements X
List of Acronyms XII
1
Introduction 1
1
Where are we on Seals? 1
2
Seals and Humans: A Troubled Relationship? 3
3
A Brief Introduction to Seals 5
4
The Characters of Law 9
4.1
Law and Knowledge 11
4.2
Law as Expression 16
4.3
Are Objectivity and Expression in Law Adversaries? 20
5
A Short Explanation of the Content of the Book 22
2
Cultures and Economies 23
1
Introduction 23
2
The Northern Hemisphere 26
2.1
Northern Atlantic Ocean 26
2.1.1
Eastern Canadian Seal Hunts 26
2.1.2
Iceland 51
2.2
Inuit Seal Hunts in the Davis Strait 54
2.2.1
Historical Overview 54
2.3
North Pacific 64
2.3.1
The Pribilof Islands 64
2.3.2
The Bering Sea and Bering Strait 71
2.4
Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan 76
2.4.1
Historical Overview 76
2.4.2
Contemporary Issues 78
2.5
Jan Mayen, Barents Sea and White Sea 78
2.6
Baltic Sea and North Sea 82
2.6.1
Historical Overview 82
2.6.2
Contemporary Issues 85
2.7
Lake Sealing 85
3
The Southern Hemisphere 89
3.1
South Georgia 91
3.1.1
Historical Overview 91
3.1.2
Contemporary Issues 95
3.2
3.3
Bass Strait, New Zealand and Macquarie Island 99
3.3.1
Historical Overview 99
3.3.2
Contemporary Issues 104
3.4
South, Southwest and Southeast Africa 105
4
Conclusion 108
3
Legal Regimes 111
1
Introduction 111
2
Defunct Multilateral Regimes 113
2.1
The North Atlantic 113
2.1.1
The Jan Mayen Seal Fishery Treaty, 1875 113
2.1.2
Finnish-Soviet Sealing Regimes in the Northeast Atlantic, 1922–1944 115
2.1.3
International Convention for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries, 1949—1978 116
2.1.4
Agreement on Measures for Regulating the Catch and Conserving Stocks of Seals in the Northeastern Part of the Atlantic Ocean, 1957 117
2.1.5
Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of Norway on Sealing and the Conservation of the Seal Stocks in the Northwest Atlantic, 1971 118
2.2
The Bering Sea Fur Seal Regimes until 1984 119
2.2.1
The 1911 Fur Seal Convention 123
2.2.2
The 1957 Interim Convention on Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals 127
2.3
Lake Sealing 130
3
Current Multilateral Regimes 131
3.1
International Legal Regimes 131
3.1.1
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1982 131
3.1.2
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), 1979 133
3.1.3
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS, Bonn Convention), 1979 136
3.1.4
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Habitats (Bern Convention), 1979 138
3.1.5
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992 139
3.2
International Organisations and Regional Regimes 140
3.2.1
Atlantic Ocean 141
3.2.2
Baltic Sea 150
3.2.3
3.2.4
Antarctica 154
3.3
A Short Discussion on Bi- and Multilateral Agreements 158
4
National Legislation 160
4.1
Northern Hemisphere 163
4.1.1
Canada 163
4.1.2
United States 172
4.1.3
Russia 176
4.1.4
Norway 179
4.1.5
Iceland 181
4.1.6
Denmark / Greenland 185
4.1.7
Sweden 188
4.1.8
Finland 189
4.1.9
Estonia 192
4.1.10
Japan 194
4.2
Southern Hemisphere 196
4.2.1
Falkland Islands and South Georgia 196
4.2.2
Namibia and South Africa 197
4.2.3
Uruguay 200
4.2.4
Argentina 202
4.2.5
Peru 204
4.2.6
Chile 205
4.2.7
Ecuador 207
4.2.8
Australia 208
4.2.9
New Zealand 210
4.3
A Short Discussion on National Legislation 212
5
Conclusion 214
4
The European Union and the Seal Hunt 217
1
Introduction 217
2
The Seal Pups Directive 1983 217
3
The EU Seal Regime 223
3.1
The Drafting History of the EU Seal Regime 223
3.1.1
The Declaration of the European Parliament 224
3.1.2
The Seal Hunt and the Council of Europe 225
3.1.3
The European Food Safety Authority 228
3.1.4
COWI 231
3.1.5
The Legislative Proposal 237
3.1.6
The IMCO Report 242
3.1.7
Banning the Trade in Seal Products 244
3.2
Adjudicating the Seal Regime 247
3.3
3.3.1
Stakeholders 251
3.3.2
The Effects of the EU Seal Regime 256
4
Conclusion 260
5
Public Morality, International Trade Law and the Seal Hunt 261
1
Introduction 261
2
The Blurry Concept of “Public Morality” 263
3
International Trade Law and the “Moral Concern” 272
3.1
The Emerging “Moral Exception” in International Trade Law 272
3.2
The “Moral Concern” and the Trade in Seal Products 279
4
Animal Welfare as a European Moral Standard 284
5
An Inner-European View on Public Morality 287
6
Conclusion 293
6
Concluding Thoughts 296
Bibliography 301
Literature Cited 301
Legislation, Policy-Documents and Case-Law Cited 334
Index 349