Index

Xiaofei Kang; Donald S. Sutton

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in Contesting the Yellow Dragon

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Xiaofei Kang

Xiaofei Kang
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Donald S. Sutton

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Dar Hadith al Hassania

Index

Aba (Ngaba, Ngawa) 5, 7 ;

the region of today’s prefecture 36, 37, 65, 135, 180 ;

creation of Aba Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture 235–37, Fig. 5.1 ;

prefectural government 237 ;

infrastructure 239 ;

renaming as Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture 312, 385 ;

educational policy 379 ,

environmental policy 280, 306–7 ;

nationalities policy 225ff ;

tourism policy 280, 287–89, 294–97, 309–310, 333 ;

Aba’s tourists 283, 325 ;

religious policy 247, 341, 344, 350, 353, 353n32, 357, 373 ;

cultural policy 313, 333, 385 ;

Han in-migration 376 ;

people’s congress 227, 270 ;

Aba News 377 ;

Tibetan revolts and disturbances in 381–82, 385, 419 ;

education in 379, 383 ;

cadres in 254 ;

collectivization in 255–56 ;

industrial labor in 259 ;

Democratic Reform in 242–50 ;

Gang-of-Four era in 270–72 ;

start of Reform era in 274 ;

Songpan and Aba 410, 420 .

Cultural Revolution, Great Leap Forward, insurrections, population, 16th administrative district

Aba county in PRC 5 ,

absence of Han before 1950s 376 ;

new county 237 ;

resistance to Democratic Reform 247 .

Kirti monastery, Megyal

Aba valley (pre-50’s Upper, Middle and Lower Aba), tsowa becomes tusi 29, 78 ,

Bon 34 ,

under Zhangla garrison 85 ;

Labrang influence 95, 114, 119n163 ;

low Han presence in 376 ;

and Red Army 144, 148n73 ;

and Su Yonghe 149, 167, 180, 226 ;

agropastoral 85, 169, 238 ;

as trading center (especially Middle Aba) 141, 142, 155, 168 ;

as opium center 156, 230, 231n34, n35 .

Aba county, Aba prefecture

acculturation (to Chinese) 18, 37–38, 41–42, 46, 60–61, 87, 105, 112, 113, 128, 377 ;

and violence 55, 59 ;

resisted by monasteries 68 ;

in Republic 168 ;

Tibetan religion and 397 ;

and homogenization 377–81 ;

agriculture as a vehicle for 65–66 .

assimilation, Qiang, Songpan consciousness

acculturation (to indigene, Tibetan) 60, 66–67, 402, 404–7, 414–15

acculturation, mutual 106, 375 ;

cf assimilation 61, 116–17 ;

and contestation 394–407 .

ethnic blending, Songpan consciousness, City God Temple, Shar dung ri, Huanglong (Yellow Dragon)

agriculture 69 ;

marginality of 23, 59 ;

as agent of change 18–19, 66 ;

intensification of 87, 134, 412 ;

indigene land appropriated 56, 67 ;

superior Han Chinese agriculture 419 ;

and Qiang 64–67 ;

rain and fertility cult 206, 217–18 ;

religious cycle and 173 ;

Agricultural Development Colony 136, 150 ;

reclamation 240, 270, 279, 419–20 ;

technological improvement 11, 67, 87, 106, 128, 229–30, 243n60 .

collectivization, famine, grain, opium

agropastoral 7, 23, 25, 65, 66, 69, 85, 217 ;

monasteries’ economy 95 ,

Great tusi’s 166–67

Aku Tongpa 328 .

culture heroes

Altan Khan 48, 49, 50, 51, 55

Amdo 7, 18, 25, 31 ;

people 9n16 ,

part of ethnographic Tibet 381, 419, 420 ;

language and culture 6, 37, 56, 60, 65 ;

common features 7–8, 98, 110, 120, 175–7 ;

sense of identity 60, 66, 419 ;

religion 31, 34, 49, 66, 71, 97 ;

political system in 6–7, 71, 97, 103, 120 ;

Bon in Amdo 102–3 (

Bon

) ;

Tibetan revolt in 381 .

Tibet (ethnographic), Bon

An Dengbang 150–51, 415

Anhong 27–28n40, 34

arms: spears, bows and arrows 53 ;

birdguns, muskets, and gingals 53 ;

late 16th century Ming superiority 53 ;

war horses 53–54, 75, 79, 80, 84 ;

machine guns 114, 165, 124, 126 ;

artillery 116 ;

arms trafficking in Qing 84 ;

spread in Republic 166, 169, 170 ;

stored in monasteries 168 ;

in hands of Tibetans 251 ;

in hands of the Great tusi 168 ;

in Nationalist airdrops of 1950s 233 ;

confiscation of 247, 252, 307

Asidong (aka Adong, Shangniba, or Dazhai) 35, 72, 72n8, 116, 169, 183, 238, 256, 299, 300, 348 ;

tusi or head of 137, 185, 224, 256 .

Dazhai

assimilation (of indigene minorities) 413 ;

Ming rhetoric 30 ;

soft-pedal 59–60, 69 ;

Qing expect and promote 105, 126–27, 127n11, 169, 408, 413 ;

and acculturation , 61, 106, 128 ;

in post-Mao Songpan 407–8 ;

voluntary change of identity 377 .

acculturation, Hui

Assman, Jan 415

Atwill, David 401

Ayodhya 4n6, 171–72

Azure Goat Temple (Qingyang si) 205, 342, 343

Baicao 56–57, 61, 61n165, 61n167, 132

baihu 25 ;

and qianhu 84, 100 .

tu baihu

Baili 50, 50n131

Baima, a Tibetan group 29, 130n17, 398

banditry 7, 44, 45, 60, 71, 113, 116, 132n24, 139, 140, 168, 170, 215 ;

tuguan duty to prevent 48, 139 ;

and monasteries 104 ;

opium bandits 133 ;

Golok as bandits 82n47 ;

measures against 45, 58 ;

“absent from Huanglong festival,” 215 ;

as form of resistance 59 ;

as cultural practice 56, 130 ;

“bandits” as epithet, for Nationalists and Tibetan allies 233–34, 242, 248, 253 ;

as epithet for Communists 149

baojia, as obstacle to anti-opium campaign 158–61 ,

and Nationalist party 170

Baozuo 72, 83, 85, 114, 114n154, 144, 228, 229 ;

and Democratic Reform 275n186

barley 7, 50, 66, 67 ;

taxes in 72m79, 152 ;

spread of 278 ;

Tibetan ritual use of 102, 219, 396, 406 ;

late adoption by troops 87n67, 106, 118 ;

tsampa 401 ;

barley tea 374

Beichuan 7, 144, 183, 206, 215

Beijing 7 ,

chiefs’ or lamas’ visits to 28n44, 35n70, 100, 103 ;

minority visits to 234 ;

its wall 39 ,

Mongol attack on 48 ;

Mongol tribute visits 85–86 ;

in Cultural Revolution 261–62; 265, 269, 273 ;

and tourism 287, 330–31 .

boards, reigns, Hongwu, Qianlong, the state, State Council

Bian Zhiyuan 57, 414

Black/White people 62, 62n168, 62n169 .

Fan/Man, Major/Minor, Yak/Sheep heads

Boards, of Rites 30, 31 ;

of Public Works 79 ;

of Punishments 83n50 ;

of War 53n138

Boguozi . see Boluozi

Boluo(zi) (=Boguozi) 62n169, 120n167, 130, 132–34, 132n25, 134n33, 34, 142, 237, 418 .

Distinguish Guoluo or Golok

Bon monasteries in Shar Khog: enumerated 34n66 ;

Kharchung (Shangnamisi) 34, 181, 361 ;

Karya 34, 350 ;

Kyangtsang (Shanba si) 34, 352, 354 ;

Laro gon (Naluo si) 34 ;

Nateng (Yuanbasi) 354 ;

Nangzhig (Duihesi) 35, 104, 135, 348 ;

Nyanzom gon (Yancong si) 34 ;

Tsotsang gon (Chuanzhu si) 35, 354 ;

resilience of 41, 65, 142, 252, 348 ;

accommodation to the state 421 ;

landholdings 354, 354n34 ;

financial basis 367 .

under Rinpung monastery, Gamel monastery

Bon/Bonpo, history of 32–37 ;

legend and history about 17, 177–178, 217–18, 403 ;

Kanghur 33 ;

Tengyur 33 ;

as “Daojiao” (the teaching of Dao) 27, 27n39 ;

monks of 13, 218, 403 ;

at Shar dung ri 180–86 ;

other holy mountains of 27n37, 35, 173–178, 178n28, 403–4 ;

in 1860 insurrection 107, 112 ;

as the fifth school of Tibetan religion 33, 227n14, 315, 382 ;

Boluozi and 132 ;

in Jiuzhaigou 287 ;

Shar khog and 6, 34, 36, 382, 391, 395 ;

Tibetan Buddhist sects and 32–37; 98, 383, 383n20, 395 ;

Yungdrung Bon 33, 102 ;

chieftains and 25, 72, 120 ;

Qing policy and 100–3, 118, 169 ;

pilgrimage and festival 179–180, 397–98, 405–6 ;

survives after Jinchuan 100–3 ;

accommodation with Chinese power 421 ;

post-Mao revival in Shar Khog 347–53, 382 ;

tourism and 354–362 ;

Huanglong Middle Temple and 344 ;

self-immolation and 420–21 .

Jang Ja dur, Rinpung monastery, Shar dung ri

borderland, appropriation in myth/history 1, 4, 8, 16–17, 69–70 ;

Chinese state and 4, 6, 8–12, 28, 39, 413 ;

cultural politics of 11 ,

and religion 8–12 ,

civilizing of 10–11, 32, 55 ;

Qing expansion and 69, 72, 76–78 ;

Nian Gengyao’s 13-point proposal on 77 ;

state control through trade 80 ;

state policies 83–85 ;

cultural politics in 337, 375–384, 411 ,

religion and 88–104, 118–9, 221, 336–37, 416–17 ;

ethnic identity and 334, 413 ;

civilizing of 59–60, 230, 241, 413 ;

Songpan as 70 .

frontier, ethnic blending; contestation, acculturation (mutual)

Brown, Melissa 61n165

Buddhism, Chinese: temples 390, 391 ;

images 154, 205, 206, 210, 212, 217, 275, 371, 403 ;

used to attract indigenes 96–98, 110, 118 ;

bridging ethnicities 173, 217, 394, 397, 407, 416 ;

and tourists 416 ;

in PRC 335, 341, 339, 351, 391 .

Huanglong, Monastery of Great Compassion, ritual scriptures (Chinese), Zhaojue monastery, Zhizhong, Zhufengxu

Buddhism, Tibetan 27, 33–34 ,

Chinese effort to control 41–42 ;

Chinese forbidden to study 41 ;

contending schools or sects: Jonangpa 26, 28, 33, 36, 37 ;

Kagyupa 33 ;

Nyingmapa 27n39, 34, 37, 102, 185 ;

factors in conversion 36 ;

teaching territories (monastic) 36 ;

(Han) Chinese and 41–42, 95–97, 337, 341 ;

bridging ethnicities 394, 397, 406–7 ;

monastery in Songpan city 97 ;

excluded from modern education 378–79 .

Bon, Gelugpa, mandala rituals, monasteries, Monastery of Great Compassion, ritual scriptures (Tibetan) Sakyapa, Serbo gon, Tulku Cheng, and

Buddhist Association, Songpan 219, 351

Buddhist Registry 27, 41

Buffetrille, Katia 179

Bulag, Uradyn 318

buluo (Ch) . see tsowa (T)

campaigns, military 25, 32 ;

Ming 15th century 37–42 ;

late 16th century 45, 45n108, 47, 51–53, 54, 57–61 ;

methods and purposes of 61n167, 67 ;

claim of Mongol threat 52, 55 ;

unintended effects 61n167, 65, 68 ;

heads taken in battle 53, 54, 57, 58, 81 ;

extermination, selective 51, 58 .

Qing, transition 72 ;

Qinghai 76, 77, 86 ;

Kham 76–77 ;

Tibet 76–77, 117 ;

Xinjiang 117 ;

in Greater Songpan 78 ;

vs. Goloks 81–83 ;

Zhandu 86 ;

Jinchuan 86, 101–2 ;

late 19th century 114 ;

Songpan forces withdrawn for 115, 412 ;

in grasslands vs Nationalist forces 149, 232–35 ;

vs Tibetan insurgents 250–58 .

Hu Zongnan, PLA, Red Army

campaigns, political: Nationalist anti-opium 153, 156–57, 161–4, 166 ;

PRC anti-opium 230–31 ;

rent reduction 241; 227 ;

one-strike-three-antis 270n170 ;

penalizing rebels 270 ;

priority over production 280 ;

work team and 227 ;

struggle meeting (T: thamsing) 246 ;

Tibetans’ “second wound,” 249n95 .

Democratic Reform, Developing the West

Chainaita (leader of 1860 insurrection) 107n132, 111

Chengdu basin/plain 5, 23 ;

route to Songpan (south road) and 6, 6n8, 75, 145, 145n66, 239n61, 281, 283, 285, 293, 297, 300, 410 ;

raids into 38 ;

troops dependence on 24, 144 ;

Mongol attacks 86 ;

Zhang Xianzhong and 71 ;

depopulation 190 ;

trade from 75 ;

opium and 161–62, 165, 166 ;

Buddhist connections to 96, 98, 181, 214 ;

Daoist connections to 191, 200n89, 205, 342, 343, 343n19, 368 ;

on pilgrimage route 182 .

Chengdu government, Sichuan

Chengdu government, as official center 75, 105, 106, 379, 410, 421 ;

as Manchu garrison HQ 76, 79, 80, 101, 115, 118 ;

declares independence 123 ,

campaigns from 32, 38 ;

sends troops 135 ;

political weakness 137, 139 ;

failure to protect commerce 143

Chiang Kai-shek 151n82, 152, 156, 157

chief officers (zhangguansi) 25

chiefs/chieftains 25, 40–41, 48, 119, 137, 139–40, 148 ;

as monastic sponsors 36

Choje Gon (Querjisi) 26

Chongqing 152, 166, 233

Choten Bum (Ch: Qudingbao) 185, 229, 257

Chuanzhusi 35, 55, 183 ;

on pilgrimage 183 ;

and new roads 284, 341 ;

tourist economy 289–90, 300, 304, 310, 327, 341, 362–63 .

Bon monasteries, Jiu/Huang airport, Long March monument and museum

Chuanzigou 304, 363, 379

Chuoling 26, 28, 38

circuit intendants at Songpan 76, 83, 193

circumambulation 33, 180–81, 185, 187, 221, 348, 358, 361–62, 372, 374, 383n20, 388, 395, 398, 405, 407 .

Bon

City God temple festival 91, 92, 98, 232 ;

as polyethnic 394–400 ;

Tibetan participation 395–97 ;

ethnic relations and 393–94, 397 ;

Songpan identity and 397, 402, 408 ;

cf. Tibetan monastic festivals 398–99 ;

cf. Huanglong’s 399–400 ;

and Hui Muslims 400 ;

cf. Guanyin tang 406

City God temple of Songpan 14, 15, 20 ;

as imperial symbol 89–90, 92 ;

post-imperial symbol 89–94, 95; 116, 118, 138, 165 ;

temple myth 91 ;

post-Mao revival 339, 341, 388–400 ;

martyrs’ cemetery 251, 388–89, 393 ;

tourism and 389 ;

Chinese state and 389–91 ,

local state and 400 ;

Chinese religion and 390 ;

Buddhist and Daoist elements in 391 ;

layout today 392–93

climate change, Spörer minimum 23 ;

warm 16th century 59, 67 ;

cool 17th century 75

climatic variability, Shar khog and Qiang region 65, 66n177, 103 ;

and Nanping 79, 159

collectivization (socialization, socialist reform, in Aba) 260, 268, 243, 245, 246, 254–55, 259, 260, 266, 367 ;

help from outside Aba for 256, 278, 411 ;

question of Chinese cultural support for 251

colonial nomenclature 129–30

commanders at Songpan (zongbing), in Qing 80, 81, 115 ;

77, 96n94 (Zhou Ying)

79 and 86 (Zhang Yuanzuo)

95 (Zhou Wenying)

98 (Xia Yuxiu) .

Lianchang (Fucha), Rinpung monastery, vice-commanders at Songpan (Ming)

commodification of religion and ethnicity 11, 354–58, 380–81 ;

Tibetan discontent with 354–57 ;

tension among Tibetan monasteries caused by 355–58 ;

state support of 357

Confucian Classics 59 ;

Book of Changes 31 ;

Book of Odes 31 ,

Great Learning 43 ,

Zuozhuan 55

contestation, over borderland 4, 17–18, 70ff ;

among sects 173ff ;

of place 15, 70 ;

over history 16–17, 418n12 ;

of believers and state 354–58 ;

over Tibetan ritual space 347–53 ;

over Huanglong Rear and Middle temples 338–47 ;

of tourism vs environmentalism 4, 418 ;

over religious expression 336–37, 416–17 ;

over sacred space 4n6, 17, 171–73, 337, 372–74, 397 ;

and mutual acculturation 217–221, 394–407

corvée 44, 59–60n161

county heads (or magistrates) at Songpan: general 89, 150, 158, 166n129 ;

unnamed 106n131, 133, 186n43, 200, 290 ;

Tibetan 380 ;

He Qing 90 ;

Zhang Zhongyin 91n81, 107, 107–8n135, 125 ;

He Yuanqing 112, 112n135, 125 ;

Jian Nianheng 116, 116n159 ;

Fu Chongju 1–4, 11, 188, 195, 198, 198n80, 213, 216 ;

Zhang Dian 125, 127, 166 ;

Ren Heping 165 ;

Huang Boshu 151n83, 161–62, 164n124, 414 ;

Sha Tiefan 163 ;

Wang Yineng 162–68 ;

Ren Taihe 229, 266

cultural exchange 128, 133 .

acculturation

Cultural Revolution (in Aba) 181, 186, 261–70, 419 ;

attack on religion 262, 263, 265, 266, 268, 278, 287, 372, 403 ;

Rebel faction 262 ;

Armed Regiment faction 263, 267 ;

Red Completion faction 263, 267–69, 273, 274 ;

ethnicity in 261, 408 ;

in memory 276

culture heroes . see Aku Tongpa, Gesar of Ling, Songtsan Gampo, Yellow Emperor, Yu the Great

culture, Chinese 127–28, 182n36; 252, 315, 319 ,

civilizing imperatives of 329, 372, 376, 408 ;

relation to violence 59 .

acculturation, agriculture, assimilation, Confucian classics, education

culture, Tibetan 56, 60, 63, 64, 65–66, 120n167, 129–30, 173–80 ;

selected for display 312 ;

devalued 313–15, 378–79 .

Amdo, tourist culture

culture, tourist . see tourist culture

Daerji 35n71, 183

Dagengge 142

Dai Yingcong 86, 87n64

Dajianlu (Dartsedo) 80n35, 140

Dalai Lama 95n91, 99 ;

5th 33 ;

1st 36 ;

3rd/4th 49 ;

and during Qing 100, 101, 102, 118, 133 ;

14th 234, 245, 249, 258, 314, 382–83, 419–21 .

Tibet

dance, at Huanglong 3, 173, 183, 315, 393 ;

Hwa-shang 126, 359, 359n45, 397 ;

by divinities 179 ;

on-stage 266, 298, 319, 323 ;

guozhuang 1 ;

minorities 380 ;

official-styled 312, 316, 327, 333 ;

for tourists 288 ;

Hui dance 388 .

singing

Daoism, “Daojiao” used for Bon 27, 27n39 ;

at Huanglong 173, 208, 217, 341 ;

as national symbol 315, 319–20, 343, 374, 408 ;

as permitted religion 335 ;

revival 390 ;

rituals forbidden 343, 373 ;

persecution 369–70 .

Huanglong (Yellow Dragon), Huanglong temples

Daxing, in Ming 52n35, 62n169, 189 ;

in Qing 108 ;

in Republic 130, 139, 161 ;

in PRC 231, 238, 243–44n73, 353

Dazhai (tusi) 137

Dazhi band 141, 142

defenses, border 83n49, 128 ;

patrols 44–45, 71 ;

neglected 44, 84, 389 .

forts, fences, garrison, walls

Democratic Reform 223, 224, 239, 240, 348, 407, 411, 412, 419, 242–62 ;

resistance to 242, 250–56 ;

“mildness” of 247n87 ;

and monasteries 247, 249–52

Deng Xiaoping 226, 233, 234, 245, 262, 273

Deng Xihou 130, 136, 136–37n42, 138

Developing the West 15, 279, 288, 289, 295, 306, 310, 336, 408

Di Cosmo, Nicola 20n15

Di Qiang 19n10, 132, 134, 134n33

Diexi 20, 32, 39, 44, 52, 53, 64, 72, 108 ;

and 1933 earthquake 20, 143, 163

Ding Yu 19, 22n18, 40, 91, 115, 415

Dongbuhanhu 31, 31n54, 62n169

dress, adopted by tusi 31, 105 ;

Tang-style 293, 386 ;

Hui and kufi 385, 386 ;

Qiang 105 ;

ethnic 216, 325, 326, 328, 331, 380, 384 ;

ethnic 315, 325, 326, 327 ;

tourist dress 325

Du Bois, Thomas 407

Duogansi (mDo Khams) 26

Dzamtang , see Rangtang

E’nengzuo 107, 111

earthquakes 414n5 ;

1933 (Diexi) 20, 143, 163 ;

2008 (Wenchuan) 294, 344, 422–23

east road 23, 44, 45, 56, 79, 80, 110, 111, 113, 189n52, 225

ecotourism 278–79, 293–94, 306, 412 .

environmental protection, tourism

education, not for indigenes 127 ;

religion excluded from 419, 412 ;

raising cultural level 378, 413 ;

as means of borderland unity 413 ;

Republican 127 .

schools

Ekvall, Robert 9–10n20, 93–94n88, 221

Elder Brothers Society (Gelaohui) 153, 153n98

elites, social, Confucian gentry undeveloped 87, 121 ;

Qing military 95, 96 ;

gentry 90, 93, 103, 108, 114, 117, 119, 124, 125, 154 ;

lineages 29–30 ;

Republican 124–25, 127, 138, 155, 159, 166, 200 ;

hybrid 166–67 ;

and Communist takeover 224–25 .

Hui, lineages (monastic), middle and upper strata of nationalities, United Front

Elliott, Mark C. 8n15, 120

environmental protection, state’s commitment to 280–81, 283, 418 ;

environmental decline 411–12, 418 ;

Huanglong 293–96, 299, 308, 312 ;

carrying capacity of Huanglong site 286, 284–85, 293, 295–96, 309 ;

Jiuzhaigou 277–78, 297 ;

and Tibetan pilgrimage 279, 359 ;

and tourism 283–87, 295, 306–310 .

ecotourism

ethnic blending (nationalities blending), in official PRC terms 16, 238, 317, 375, 379–80, 407–8 ;

spontaneous local forms 400–9, 417 ;

cross-ethnic Songpan culture and consciousness 400–2; 406–9 .

acculturation

ethnic classification 63, 129–31 ;

in 1950s 221, 382–83, 418

ethnic identity (ethnicity) 8–12 ,

difference as threat 55 ,

creation of 221 ;

intensified in Qing 122 ;

fluidity of 132–33 ;

precipitation of 18, 68 ;

and religion 3, 8, 121 ;

switching 61, 377 ;

Tibetan 381–84 ;

and temple festivals 213–17 ;

shifting official emphasis in PRC 221, 261, 270

ethnic nomenclature, and Han attitudes 129–31

ethnic performance 1–3, 11, 358–59, 361, 384 ;

tourism, state and 297–98, 315, 345, 380–81; 387–88 .

ethnic representation

ethnic relations 94, 104–5, 121, 123, 125, 133, 244, 266, 317, 317n10 ;

and religion 220–22, 404–5 .

Han/Fan, insurrections, Red Army

ethnic representation 317–18, 333, 337, 384, 387–88 .

ethnic performance, memorialization, Songtsan Gambo

ethnicity and religion 1–2, 8–10, 13, 92–94, 315, 375, 383, 424 ;

ethnicity expressed and subsumed in religion 118, 123, 397, 403–9 ;

ethnoreligion 41, 375, 382–83 ;

secularization of ethnicity 383–84

ethnicity, defined 15, 15–16n15 ;

as process 8 ;

ethne (the group) 63 ;

ethnie (the individual) 325 ;

and the other 8 ;

and walls 21–23 ;

incipient 64–65, 68, 108–9, 121 ;

precipitated for Qiang and Tibetans 417 ;

stereotypes 384 ;

ethnic representation and display 293, 311 ;

marketing of 11, 388, 408, 293 ;

expressed in diet and ritual food 406 ;

formed in presence of/in resistance to state 8, 10, 68, 105, 108–9, 117, 122, 253, 423 ;

relationship to nationalism 8, 63, 312, 318, 323 ;

regional sentiment and 11, 400–3 ;

relationship to class 383 ;

flexibility of 15, 61, 61n165, 384 ;

bi-ethnic, trans-ethnic 93, 98 .

dance, dress, Han, Hui, Qiang, singing, Tibetan identity

ethnoreligion . see ethnicity and religion, Tibetan Buddhism, Hui

famine 75, 145, 147, 255–56 (1960–61), 259–60, 260n134, 367

Fan/Xifan 115–16, 194 ,

indigenes 418

Fan and Zang/Tibetan 418 ;

sheng Fan, shu Fan 116 ;

“Fan” transformation 413 ;

as “victims” of Mongols 105 .

Tibetan identity

Fan/Xifan: indigenes 1, 3, 9, 9n16 ,

Fan and Zang/Tibetan 9, 9n16 ,

Fan and Qiang 9n16 ,

Fan and Tubo 9, 9n16 ;

classification as sheng and shu 23, 69, 413 ;

“Fan” transformation 28 ;

and Mongols 50 ;

Xifan 63 .

sheng Fan, shu Fan

Fanseng 41

Fellowship of Goodness 163

fences 20, 45–46, 56n148, 70, 79, 83, 105, 106, 117, 189, 190, 279, 411 .

He Qing, Zhang Jie

Fengdong pass 45

feuds among chiefs 25, 29, 45, 56, 72n8, 104–5, 139, 149, 170, 257, 414 ;

between Hui and Han 384, 415n8 ;

resolution of 30, 229, 231 ;

exploitation of 42 ;

and Gesar of Ling 56 .

Labrang

Five Races 126–27, 129, 418 ;

early Republican five-color flag 413 .

ethnicity

fort granaries 44, 67, 71, 72n5, 79, 87, 87n56, 114, 124, 414

forts/fortresses (on east and west roads) 20; 46 ;

destruction of 37 ;

land grab of 55–56 ;

Anshunguan 129 ;

Deshengpu 129 ;

Guihuaguan 116, 129, 164 ;

Jingyipu 129 ;

Pingdingguan 129 ;

Three Stage (Sanshe) fort 45 ,

Zhenfanpu 129 ;

Zhenjiangguan 129 ;

Zhenping fort 29, 90, 123 ;

and (north of Zhangla), Zhenlu fort 54 .

defenses (border)

frontier, strategic role of 24, 40, 41, 60, 85, 106, 115, 240 ;

frontier officials 37–38, 58–59, 67, 71, 85n54; 121, 127, 136, 166, 311 ;

reorganizing 136–37, 152–53 ;

modernizing 158, 162–64, 169 ;

memory and history 107–8, 323, 415 ;

religious policy in 41–43, 198, 215 ;

Qing expansion of 69, 77–78, 86–87 ;

City God as frontier guardian 90–93, 118 ;

end of political frontier 260 ;

frontier of control 67 ;

frontier of settlement 67–68 ;

frontier feudalism 10, 166–69 ;

frontier militarism 168 .

borderland, Mongols, trade

Fu Chongju (Magistrate) 1–4, 11, 188, 195, 198, 198n80, 213, 216

Fu River, origin 5 ;

east route 6; 20 ;

agricultural and agropastoral 69 ;

and Longan 88 ;

on pilgrimage route 181, 182 ;

Chinese settlements 200, 238, 314, 340, 341 ;

and Yu the Great 369

Ga Anyen Dampa 43

gaitu guiliu (administrative incorporation) 60, 61, 77, 105

Gamel monastery 27n37, 35–36, 35n70, n71, 142, 180, 187 ,

Gamel ginka (confederation) and dispute 348–58, 360, 372 ,

Gamel festival 398, 407 ;

sources 35n70, n71 .

under lineage, religious (Tsabtsa lama)

Gansu 268, 381, 386 ;

route 141, 142, 169, 228, 229, 238 ;

southern Gansu 142, 144, 149, 275n186

Ganzi, Tibetan insurrection 245, 250, 419 ;

in Cultural Revolution 264 .

Kham

Gao Xian 20, 22n18

Gao Zhiyuan 227n12 ;

and Cultural Revolution 262, 258, 267, 269 ;

and Yangling Dorje 273–74

Gaotunzi 55, 55n145, 212, 407

garrisons , see Songpan, Zhangla

Gaubatz, Piper Rae 68n178

Gelugpa 33, 34, 37, 49, 97, 98, 132–33, 350, 396 ;

first monastery in Lhasa (Ganden) 36 ;

Chone conversion to 99 ;

with Qing support 99–100, 118, 119 ;

rivalry with Bon 101–3, 382, 383n20 ;

training 112 .

Guangfa si

Geng Zhong 20, 91, 92, 115

gentry , see elites

Gesar of Ling 17, 56, 64, 264, 265, 269n168, 319n14, 327–28 .

culture heroes

Giersch, C. Patterson 11, 121n70, 120n169

gold mining: interruption and resumption 145, 159n110 ;

and local militarists 135–40, 170 ;

loss in earthquake 143 ;

and opium 156 ;

Zhangla gold mine(s) 135–36, 140, 412 ;

shipped to Chongqing 152 ;

and Gown Brotherhood 156

Golden Lakes 5, 173, 361 ;

gendered Tibetan landscape and 179 ,

Shar dung ri pilgrimage and 177, 183 ;

Rinpung monastery and 415 .

Huanglong (Yellow Dragon), Sertso, Multicolored Lake(s)

Golok (Guoluoke), and Jonangpa sect 27n35, 36 ;

monasteries 132 ;

Qing tusi 78 ;

political economy of 81–82, 132 ;

raiding and violence of 56, 81–82, 82n47 ;

punitive campaigns against 81–83 ;

Qing law and 85 ;

in Republic 149–50 ;

in PRC 238 ;

in Cultural Revolution 268, 268n167

Gouxiang (si) 33–34

governors-general (zongdu) of Sichuan and Shaanxi 76–77

(Nian Gengyao, Yue Zhongqi) 82, 105–6

Gown Brotherhood 14, 153–56, 166, 168 ;

and opium 133n32, 155–60, 160, 162, 165, 231

Graham, David Crockett 183, 195, 197, 213–14

grain, garrison’s and forts’ dependence on 39, 43, 278 ;

caravans 20, 411 ;

indigene transportation of 44 ;

shortage of 43, 44n103, 45 ;

1970s grain-first policy 271, 279 ;

Songpan exports 259–60 ;

in short supply in Aba 260n134 ;

taxes in early PRC 261 ;

per capita allowance 266, 270–71 .

agriculture, granaries, merchants, trade

granaries (garrison and fort) 44, 67, 71, 72n5, 79, 87, 87n56, 114, 124, 356, 414 ;

(monastery) 414

grand coordinators of Sichuan (Ming) 39, 58, 61 ;

(Liu Hong) 40n87 ;

(Xu Yuantai) 47 ;

(Li Shangsi) 52 ;

(Tan Xisi) 54 ;

(Hu Shining) 58 ;

(Zhang Shiche) 61 ;

(Ma Hao) 188 ;

(Wu Kun) 189n51 ;

(Hu Shining) 189n52

grassland (pastureland), social organization 25 ;

its animal and herbal products 134, 140–42 ;

Tibetan culture of 253 ;

beyond Ming control 25, 31, 67 ;

Qing expansion into 69, 77–78, 83, 85 ;

beyond Republican control 169, 232, 244 ;

Red Army in 144 ;

Huanglong festival in 186–88, 215 ;

opposition to PRC in 251, 253, 267 ;

PRC reforms in 250 ;

Cultural Revolution in 269, 273 ;

Han population in 376 ;

reclamation efforts in 419–20 .

Amdo, Greater Songpan, Kokonor/Qinghai, Nian Gengyao, tsowa

Great Community Society 163

Great Leap Forward 249, 258–61

Great tusi, the 123, 166–69, 225, 226n10, 227, 232–33, 258, 412 .

Megyal, Su Yonghe, Suo Guanying

Greater Songpan 6–8, 10 ;

defined 18 ;

under Qing 14, 69–70, Fig. 2.1, Fig. 2.2, 73–74, 78, 80, 83, 101, 113, 117 ;

72 buluo in Qing 78, 80 ;

Qing garrisons 79–80 ;

through trade 80 ;

kounei and kouwai 82–85 ;

Qing laws on governing the Fan 81, 83–84, 83n50, 84–85 ;

decline of Qing garrisons after 1862 112–13, 115 ;

under Republic 410 ;

under PRC 349, 376 .

kounei/kouwai

Gruschke, Andreas 26n30

Guangfa si 99n105, 101, 102n114, 103, 119, 147 .

Yungdrung lhadeng

Guanxian 136, 160, 182 ;

as commercial center 113, 141, 142, 145

Guanyin 187, 197, 212, 275, 338, 341, 394 ;

Guanyin sanzimei 212, 339, 393 ;

Guanyin Pavilion 212, 395 ;

Guanyin tang 400, 406, 407 ;

Guanyin temple festival 407 ;

Goddess Cihang, Daoist equivalent of 341

Guo Zizhang 51

Gyarong, religion in 27, 27n36, 30, 33–34, 34n64, 36, 100–2, 275 ;

ethnicity 130, 130n17, 228n19 .

Bon/Bonpo, Guangfa si, Jinchuan, Yungdrung lhateng

Haines Watson 115, 128, 133

hamlet bailiffs (paitou) 42, 45, 45n106, 61

Han 1, 3, 4, 14, 15 ,

Han ethnicity 8–9, 9n15 ;

Han and Hui 385 ;

Han Chinese identity 411 ;

Han ethnic identity and the Other 121 ,

ritual calendar and ethnicity 377 ;

Han chauvinism critiqued 238, 272 .

nationalism (Chinese)

Han and Fan, relations 3, 115–17 ,

antagonism 108–9 ;

in Qing law 84 ;

sharing sacred sites 213–17, 362 ;

lumped as Fan/Han 133, 133n31 .

Shar dung ri, Huanglong

Han in-migration 18, 20, 60, 133–35 ;

forced 87, 87n65, 105, 134n35 ,

in Ming Maozhou 64 ;

in Maozhou, Wenchuan, Longan 105 ;

in Republican Maerkang 167 ;

in PRC Songpan 240, 256 ;

likely spread of agriculture by 87, 278 ;

city building for 45 ;

in PRC Aba 253n112 ;

continued dominance of Tibetan population 402 ;

benefit of, unquestioned 241, 413 .

Han settlers, Hui

Han settlers 6, 11 ;

adaptiveness 46 ;

competition with indigenes 62, 108 ;

and temple building 90 ;

at Maozhou 66 ;

at Nanping 79, 87 ;

Qinghai plans 83n49 ;

adaptability of indigenes to Han 411 .

Han in-migration

Hanpan, troops for Qing 114 ;

and Gamel monastery 35, 142, 356 ;

as autonomous district 238 .

Qiming, Shanba, Gamel monastery

Hanseng 41

Harrell, Stevan 11

He Guogang 133n30

He Long 145

He Qing 45, 47, 115

heads taken in battle 53, 54, 57, 58

Heilunlai 107

Heishui 63, 160, 164, 167, 257, 273 ;

and Su Yonghe 149, 226, 232n39 ;

and Red Army 149 ;

disturbances in 113, 136–37n42 ;

feuding in 62n68, 230n28, 238 ;

Ming uprisings in 37–38, 53 ;

pro-Nationalist uprisings in 232–33, 232n39, 248

Herman, John 11, 25n29, 53n138, 55, 59n161

Higher Min valley, definition 4, 4n7 ,

agropastoral economy of 7, 23, 69 ;

Qing control of 78, 104 ;

Bon monasteries in 34, 337, 354 ;

distinguished from lower sections of the Upper Min 45, 65–66 .

Shar khog, cf Upper Min

historical memory 415 ;

local 34, 56, 109, 109n137 ;

Tibetan cultural memory 120, 125–26, 398 ;

Huanglong and 188, 358, 364 ;

official suppressing 264 ;

competing memories 337, 374 ;

and Yao the Good 370–71 ;

City God temple 92, 107n137, 393 ;

territorializing memory 411 ;

potential memory 415 .

memorialization

Holm, David 119–20

Hongwu emperor, and Songpan garrison 18, 23, 26, 29, 38, 50, 412 ;

minorities policy 59–60, 59–60n161, 78 ;

religious policy 26, 42 ;

Pronouncements of the Hongwu Emperor 31

Hongyuan county 233n44, 237, 238, 268, 273, 287, 318, 376

household registration (hukou) system 261, 377

Hu Shining 58

Hu Yaobang 297, 332, 359

Hu Zongnan 144, 150, 153

Huanglong (Yellow Dragon): as place/gorge sometimes known as Huanglongsi 45, 171, 172, 183, 186, 187, 189, 195n73, 214, 334, 338, 411 ;

as a township in Songpan 173 ;

Chinese appropriation of Tibetan site 188–212, 220–21 ;

possible Ming battle site 53–54 ;

Qing establishment 114, 190–94 ;

Kangxi birthday celebration at 191–92 ;

as a Daoist sacred site 198–202; 208, 209, 210, 359, 374 ;

Chinese literati writings about 191, 192, 193, 202–6 ;

and tourism 338, 341, 346 ;

ecological preservation and 341 ;

calciferous (tufa) deposits at 190 ;

Chinese naming and renaming of 206 ;

contested significance of 4, 11 ;

observation by Western travellers 183, 190n53, 194, 195, 213–4 ;

scenery and topography 1–2, 214, 187, 193, 202–6 ;

and Pool of Turning Flowers 187, 205–6, 218–19 ;

contestation over 4, 337, 338 ;

in World Biosphere application 342 ;

Chinese discontent with the Management and tourism 345–47 ;

as scenic park 2, 181, 361 ;

ethnic tourism at ;

as World Heritage Site .

Huanglong Management Bureau, Huanglong temples, Huanglong temple festival

Huanglong as World Heritage site, Fig. 6.1 ;

application 282, 285, 308, 312, 330 ;

admission 287 ;

prestige as 310, 416 ;

UNESCO about 285–87; 290, 293, 296, 305, 307, 310, 320, 325, 337, 418 ;

reporting to 320 ;

affirms state’s role 293 .

Jiuzhaigou, UNESCO World Heritage

Huanglong Management Bureau 2, 338, 374 ;

its precursor organizations 281–88 ;

acquires county-level authority under Aba 286 ;

development of tourism 288–89 ;

environmental policies 297, 304–7, 337, 344 ;

regulation of religious practice for tourism and environmental protection 345, 361–62, 371, 373 ;

religious policies at 344, 358–61, 374 ;

a “historical” not religious site 338, 342–43, 359 ;

employees of 299–301, 338, 374 ;

local enterprise at 299–301, 303–4 ;

marketing ethnic tourism by 344, 373 ;

modern-style management at 297–99 ;

tensions with the Daoist priest 342–44, 373 ;

tensions with local Han Chinese 340–41, 344–47, 358, 360, 361, 368, 372, 374, 390 ;

tensions with Tibetan Bon monasteries 358–62, 372 .

contestation, Huanglong temples, Rinpung monastery

Huanglong temple festival 1–3, 5, 123, 132, 183, 215, 359, 388, 402–3, 414 ;

Daoist rituals at 191–92; 201–2, 343 ;

local ritual calendar 173 ;

commerce at 141, 215–16 ;

courtship at 216 ;

open-air gatherings (changba) at 1–2, 183, 215, 218 ;

interethnic participation 1–2, 213–222, 416 ;

official on-stage folk festival outside park 298, 315, 345, 361 .

contestation, acculturation (mutual), Huanglong Management Bureau, Huanglong temples, Huanglong zhenren

Huanglong temples, in Ming 188–190 ;

in Qing 190–94 ;

in pre-Communist times 138, 195–98 ;

Nationalist Songpan Professional School 335 ;

as White Deer Temple (Bailu si) 195, 219 ;

as Temple (Xueshan si) 96, 97, 188, 191, 192, 194, 195, 203, 219 ;

dispute over temple property in 1929 200 ;

Huanglong temples elsewhere 205, 205n99 ;

Daoist clerics at 200, 214, 335, 337, 341–43, 372–73 ;

connections with Chengdu monasteries 214 ;

independent revival 338–341 ;

extra-official management 341–44, 344–47, 365, 373–74, 406–7 ;

commodification of 343–44; 360–61 ;

Front/Lower temple 192, 195, 343n18 ;

Middle temple 54n141, 191, 195, 196–97 ,

rebuilt Chinese Buddhist style 339–41 ;

rebuilt in Tibetan Bon style 344, 360–61, 374 ;

Rear temple 188, 189, 194, 195, 197–200, 334 ,

co-existence of Bon and Daoist gods in 358–59 ;

and Yao the Good 364–72 .

Huanglong Management Bureau, Huanglong temple festival, Huanglong zhenren, Yao the Good

Huanglong zhenren (Yellow Dragon the Perfected) 5, 14, 188, 197, 198–205, 211, 212, 218, 280n7, 334, 338, 341, 342, 345, 346, 346n20, 347, 358, 371 (as Yao the Good) ;

cave (grotto, cavern) 203–4; 206, 209, 218, 334 ;

myth about 206–11 ;

iconography in relation to other local gods 199, 212, 339 ;

scriptures related to 201–2 ;

in Ming popular novels 201, 205 .

Huanglong (Yellow Dragon), Huanglong temples, Yu the Great

Huangsha (later Pingfan fort) 59

Huangsheng pass 7, 19n10, 70, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 134 .

kounei and kouwai

Huber, Toni 35n71, 175, 178n28, 179, 213n109, 347, 348n22, 362n48

Hui (Muslim, Sino-Muslim) 1, 4, 6, 9, 13 ;

population 133–34, 133n33, 134n35n36 ;

ethnic identity 385–88 ;

in-migration 411 ;

as settlers 213 ;

as soldiers 22, 22n18, 66, 91n77, 107, 165 ;

as literati 93 ;

as merchants 22, 75, 84, 114, 128, 141, 168, 232 ;

in Tibet trade 141 ;

Shaanxi merchants 93, 232 ;

in Songpan town 21–22, 22n18, 93, 125, 224, 224n2, 284, 291, 377, 412 ;

Hui villages 104, 243 ;

and Nationalist party 151 ;

and Li Yangsan siege 127 ;

and Cultural Revolution 266, 385 ;

Hui communes 255 ;

and officials in 1911 116–18 ;

one of the “five races,” 127, 139 ;

classification 9 ;

ethnic stereotyping and tension 384, 402 ;

incipient ethnicity 23 ;

bi-ethnic 94 ;

in Qing law 84 ;

and Tibetans 107, 109, 117, 220 ;

qingzhen 385, 387 ;

and opium 158–59, 159n110 ;

and hukou 377 ;

Muslim educational revival 386 ;

Songpan identity of 401, 416 ;

and other Hui 386, 402 ;

and Songpan Han 94, 385, 393, 396 ;

sharing Han cosmological order 93–94 ;

among Huanglong festival visitors 1, 213, 215, 216, 218, 394, 400 ;

and City God cult 93–94 ;

join Communists in PRC 225, 229, 239, 251, 386 ;

and Cultural Revolution 266–67, 385 ;

and tourism 304, 312, 337, 385–88, 293 ;

religious identity 275, 375 ;

as minority minzu 252 ;

feeling deprived of collective recognition 239 ;

Gansu Muslim forces 99, 165, 168, 233 ;

and hajj 180 .

Ma Bufang, mosques

illiteracy, in Chinese 169, 339, 371, 373, 400, 406 ;

in Tibetan 378, 379

indigenes 9 (9n16) ,

resistance 14, 38–39, 55 ;

categorized 32, 62, 62n168, 62n169 ;

drive to civilize 32, 43, 47, 59 ;

Chinese terminology for 129–33 .

Fan, insurrections, Qiang, Man

indirect rule 14, 70, 104, 118–19, 412 .

loose rein, ritual gifts, tribute system

Inner Mongolia 56n148, 235, 235n48

insurrections (1426–27) 37–38, 60 ;

(1860–61) 14, 71, 105, 106–11 ;

1862 settlement 112–13 ;

(1911) 33, 14, 71, 105, 116–17, 123 ;

Rewu 123–24 ;

pro-Nationalist (1952–53) 232–35 ;

anti-Communist (1956–58) 250–58

Jang ja dur (Bon holy mountain) 17, 27n37, 35, 35n71, 176, 180, 348

Jiaozhi (Annam) and Songpan disturbances 26, 37, 60

Jinchuan, people 62n169 ;

local political systems in 103, 103n123, 113, 119, 135n36 ;

religion in 27, 27n36, 36, 101n113, 169 ;

18th-century campaigns in 77n19, 86, 86n62, 100, 101, 101n113, 103, 103n123, 119, 132 ;

in Republic 136 ,

and opium 160 ,

ethnic mix 236 ;

in PRC 267 .

Gyarong; Guangfa monastery

Jiuzhaigou, topography 287 ;

as tourist center 343, 348n22, 362, 363, 389, 390 ;

highway 423 ;

ethnic tourism 374 ;

environmental protection 279–80, 280n5, 283, 297 ;

as World Heritage site 288, 354 ;

4-star then 5-star tourist site 291, 297 ;

in World Biosphere 297 ;

and Developing the West 289 ;

Jiuzhaigou county from 1998 79, 99, 278 .

Nanping county, tourism

Jiuzhaigou/Huanglong (Jiu/Huang) airport 6, 289 ,

mark of modernity 309 ;

diverted Songpan town tourism 293 ;

and Long March monument 322 ;

political implications 295 ;

stimulus to Jiuzhaigou and Huanglong tourism 294, 297 ;

economic effects 304, 310, 362 ;

social effects 383 ;

cultural effects 422

jiwa, trading agents for monasteries 142, 232, 244

Kalsang Gyatso (Gesang Jiangsuo, Living Buddha Chen) 98, 225, 379, 396

Kangxi emperor 72, 75–76, 83, 109n138, 191–92

Kapstein, Matthew 120, 179

Karmay, Samten 27n36, 102, 143, 252, 404, 405

Kham 26n30 ,

Qing capture 76–77, 83, 115 ;

trade via 80, 113, 140, 156 (opium) ;

part of ethnographic Tibet 17, 381, 419, 481 ;

and pan-Tibetan identity 381–83, 419 ;

Tibetan revolt and repression 1956 115, 248, 260–61n137, 381 .

Ganzi

Khubilai Khan 22

Kirti monastery 146–48, 148n73, 273, 414, 419, 420

Kokonor 1, 7, 48, 49, 52, 54, 55, 76, 77, 78 .

Qinghai

Kou Shen 39–40, 40n86, 40, 91, 291

kounei (within the passes) 69, 79, 85, 243, 309, 420 ;

kounei/kouwai terminology 83

kouwai (beyond the passes) 7, 69–71, 78–79, 83, 113–15, 117, 141

Kuru Kyab 224, 227, 229, 253, 257

Kyangpak Lama 34, 177–78, 178n28, 181, 183, 313, 364, 371, 411 ;

reincarnation of Tonpa Shenrab 178, 206

Kyangtsang (Shanba si) monastery 34, 142, 348, 352, 354

Labrang monastery 348 ;

its expansion in Songpan region and the reactions 95, 103n123, 113–14n150, 114, 119, 119n163, 229 ;

training of a Rinpung abbot at 348

Labrang, society 336n6 ;

as trading center 143, 162, 252

Lady Baima 403, 404, 405, 407

land reclamation 40, 82, 170, 240, 271, 271n172

landscape 8, 12, 411 ;

Tibetan 98, 173–87 ;

Chinese 202–11, 213, 315 ;

modern 297 ;

official 319–20, 324 ;

tourists and 325, 328–31

Langmusi 141

Langri lama 104, 414 . see Bon monasteries, Nangzhig

Laro gon (Naluo si) 34

Lattimore, Owen 11, 168

law in borderland, Chinese 31, 44, 81–85, 83n50, 85n54 ;

in practice 85 ;

in PRC 230, 252 ;

indigenous law 28, 99, 113, 243, 243n73 .

tsowa, tusi

Lhasa 7, 75, 85, 317, 317n10 ;

and Mongols 75, 86n57 ;

Songpan outside control of 27 ;

religious influence in borderland 99, 181, 348, 382 ;

monasteries at 36, 103, 130, 147, 180, 181, 258, 348 ;

trade 167 ;

Qing occupation of 76, 77, 85 ;

British attack on 360 ;

resistance to Communist state 245, 249, 269n137 ;

Tibetan revolt at 381 ;

2008 riots at 422 ;

trade 167 ;

in Reform period 390, 422 .

Central Tibet

Li Chongxi 294, 294n56, 305n83, 310n94

Li Deyu 16 ;

and the seven-story tower 16, 40, 43

Li Erkang 152, 162–65, 166

Li Guangming 133, 133n32, 157, 195–96n74

Li Hualong 50n130, 52n135, 54

Li Jingquan 244–45, 258

Li Shangsi (Jinfeng) 52, 53

Li Xiaoxiong 157

Li Yangsan 152, 163, 165

Li Yingxiang 51, 57

Li Zicheng 71

Lianchang, Fucha 106, 106–112, 107–8n135, 116 ;

in historical memory 125–26, 359, 414

Liangshan 132, 228n17, 230n32, 254n155

Lifan , see Lixian

Lin Zexu 165

Lindblad, Lars-Eric 280, 293

lineage, religious 102, 351–52 ;

Chan 41, 96 ;

Gelugpa 49 ;

Quanzhen 200n89, 343n19 ;

Sakya 185 ;

Tsabtsa 35–36, 348, 356, 357, 359

Lipman, Jonathan 23

little east road 44

Little King 50n130, 54n142

Little, Archibald John 6n8, 194, 200

Liu Bihua 2, 4

Liu Shaoqi 262 ;

on minorities 226

Liu Wenhui 155

Liu Xiang 151n82, 155

Lixian (county) 63, 136, 160, 230, 267, 273, 297 ;

Lifan, Fig. 3.2 136

Lobdzan Dandzin 77, 78, 100 .

Mongols, Khoshut

local officials, (Ming) 32, 165, 414 ;

relations with tusi and monasteries 19, 37–41, 46, 61, 81–82 ;

weakness in Nationalist period 155 ;

pro-development and weak on conservation in tourism era 290, 306, 309–10 ;

and religious policy 370, 374 .

opium (campaign against)

Lodro Gyeltsen (Luozhier Jianzang) 27n39, 35, 40

Long March 68, 145, 151, 350n26, 414 ;

and minorities 335n2, 249 ;

and monasteries 147 ;

memory of 263, 322, 331, 371 .

Red Army; Long March monument and museum

Long March monument and museum 289, 290n45, 320–22, 371 .

memorialization

Longan, Fig. 1.1 ; 29, 60, 80, 88, 105, 111, 115 .

Longzhou

longue durée approach to borderland history 4–11, 411–18

Longzhou (later Longan) 45, 56

loose rein (halter and bridle) 25, 28–29, 30, 58, 67 .

indirect rule

lungta (windhorse), paper squares scattered with a prayer ; 56, 180, 183, 349, 361 ;

environmental concerns about 362 ;

Chinese adopt Tibetan custom of 395, 401–2, 405 ;

Tibetan criticizes use of 356, 396

Luo Qi 40, 40n86, 41, 42, 91

Ma Bufang 143, 165, 168, 233

Ma Chaojin/Chaoyang, possible founder of Huanglong 188, 188n49

Ma Hao, possible founder of Huanglong 188–89, 188n50

Ma Zuliang 225, 233, 239, 266, 379

Madsen, Richard 9n19

Maerkang 26 ;

commercial center in Republic 156 ;

opium poppy in 158, 167, 230–31 ;

site of Aba prefectural government 226, 237, 238, 288–89 ;

in 1950s 248, 254 ;

in Cultural Revolution 26, 263, 267, 268 .

Suo Guanying, Zhuokeji

Maerza 26

Major/Minor clans 62, 62n169 .

Black/White people, Yak/Sheep Head

Makley, Charlene 179, 336n6, 253

mandala rituals 65, 177, 179, 275, 398

Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Team 268

Mao Zedong, and minorities 235, 236n51 ;

and Red Army 144, 150, 350n26 ;

Tibetans 147, 226n10, 270 ;

and Tibet 245 ;

and Cultural Revolution 262, 263, 264, 265

Maoergai 54, 141, 142, 144, 150, 164, 263 ;

party conference at 290n45

Maoergai monastery 35, 36, 227, 248, 350, 354n34 ;

rebuilding of 350n26

Maogong, in Republic 135, 135n36, 136 ;

and Red Army 144, 145, 146, 149 ;

as opium center 157, 159

Maoxian 7 ,

as Qiang region 120, 132, 239, 239n59 ;

and Boluozi 132, 215, 224 ;

in Republic 144, 145, 160 ;

on pilgrimage route 182–83, 215 ;

as military HQ 139 ;

regional HQ in PRC 226, 229, 230, 233, 237, 238 ;

Democratic Reform in 241, 244, 246 ;

tourism in 288, 289 .

Maozhou, Qiang, south road, Upper Min

Maozhou 115 ;

garrison at 23, 43, 44, 45, 62, 63, 116, 125, 410 ;

as center for trade and communications 72n10, 123 ;

ethnicity and acculturation at 59–60n161, 62n168, 63–66, 105–6 ;

ethnic conflict in 66 .

Maoxian, south road, Upper Min

Maozhou 72, 72n10, 87, 105, 106, 115, 116, 193, 410 ;

ethnic conflict

Megyal (Huaergongchenlie), in Nationalist/Communist wars 167–68 ;

territorial conflict with Su Yonghe 167, 229 ;

“won over” to Communists 233–34 ;

and Dalai Lama 234–35 ;

and United Front 226, 237n52, 239n61, 273, 415 ;

Democratic Reform 257–58 ;

suicide reported after wife’s disappearance 265 .

Aba (county), the Great tusi

memorialization 125, 233n44, 415 .

historical memory, Long March monument, Songtsan Gambo

merchants, Chinese killed and plundered on roads 44, 48, 51, 60, 81, 114, 132 ;

given protection 45, 114, 115 ;

assisted by tusi 103n123; 141, 168 ;

gentry and merchant elite of Songpan 125 ;

merchant association 152, 164 ;

Tibetan merchants 48, 142 .

Hui, monasteries, trade

Meyer, Jeffrey 20n15

Mi Shusen 225, 262, 266, 379

middle and upper strata of nationalities 223–26, 234–45 ;

in Democratic Reform 241, 241n67, 246 ;

fate of 256–58 .

the Great tusi

military forces at Songpan, Security Army 123 ;

Song[pan] Army 136 ,

Han Army 136–37, 225 ;

River Defense Army 137–38 ;

West Sichuan Han army 138 .

Hu Zongnan, Red Army

military technology , see arms

Min River, as tributary of Yangzi 5 ;

terrain of 6 ;

Qing controls 78 ;

cuts through Songpan city 88 ;

and Yu the Great, the water tamer 206, 369 ;

in Huanglong myth 207, 209, 369 ;

and Qiang communities 7; 217 ;

and Chinese settlements 91, 106, 190, 338, 341, 369, 377 ,

and Tibetan communities 106, 187, 395 ;

passim .

Higher Min, Upper Min, Zingchu

Ming reigns, Yongle 26, 38, 39, 91 ;

Xuande 26–27, 41 ;

Tianshun (Yingzong) 39 ,

Chenghua 44, 58 ;

Hongzhi 44 ;

Jiajing 46, 58 ;

Wanli 48–68, 105 .

Hongwu

Ming religious appointments, Yongle 26–27 ;

Xuande 27–28, 41 ,

Hongzhi 44

Minzhou 50

Minzu (nationalities) 9, 10, 15, 22, 256 ;

Han conceptions of 315, 326, 333, 335 ;

self-definitions of 375, 382, 424 ;

origin of modern 423 ;

nationalities blending 16, 238, 317, 375–84 ;

nationalities cadres 240n63 ;

standardizing minzu culture 328, 329, 378–79 .

ethnicity, Fan/Xifan, Qiang, Tibetan, middle and upper strata of nationalities, minzu policies

Minzu policies in PRC 228, 229, 244–45, 260–61, 312, 408 ;

a polyethnic state 1, 326–27, 335, 374, 416 ;

1950s classification of 55 minzu 61, 221 ;

equal treatment of 413 ;

minzu and all-China or national identity 312, 384, 413, 416, 422 ;

local/minzu nationalism critiqued 232, 238, 251, 267, 274 ;

meetings and congresses 227, 257, 270, 272, 273 ;

nationalities question 271–72 ;

nationalities work 228n17, 275 ;

minzu tuanjie/nationalities’ unity 2, 16, 112, 224, 246, 270, 317, 375–76, 401–2, 422 .

ethnicity, Han chauvinism, minzu/nationalities

monasteries 4, 7, 14, 21 ;

in Ming 24–38, 41–43 ;

and Mongols 49–51, 54 ;

in Qing 94–95 ;

Qing attacks on 100–104 ;

wealth of 147 ;

branches 34, 43, 95, 98, 119, 186, 275n186 ;

teaching territories 36 ;

lineage succession and 26, 87–88 ;

in tea and other trade 40, 67, 75 ;

Tibetan identity and 65–66 ;

lacked by Qiang 65–66 ;

as religio-political centers for tsowa 65, 94–95 ;

as major property holders and traders 95 ;

Chinese state and 97–99 ;

as mediators 103–4, 109–11 ;

economic activities 335–36 ;

in Democratic Reform 249–50 ;

in Reform period 275, 275n186 .

Jinchuan, Monastery of Great Compassion, Zhizhong, Zhufengxu, tsowa/buluo

monasteries, Tibetan (by name, outside Shar khog): Baoen (Pingwu) 183 ;

Chone (Gansu) 72n8, 99 ;

Ganden (Lhasa) 36 ;

Gouxiang si (Ruoergai) 33, 34 ;

Jokhang (Lhasa) 180 ;

Wolong (Wenchuan) 65 ;

Yanghua 49, 50, 54 ;

Zharu si (Jiuzhaigou) 287 .

Guangfa, Kirti, Labrang

monasteries, Tibetan (by name, within Shar khog) , see Bon monasteries; appendix

Monastery of Great Compassion (Dabei si) 41–43, 79n27, 90n76, 91n79, 92, 96, 97, 98, 98n101, 391, 395, 396, 406 ;

Great Bell of 42

Mongols 39 ,

control of part of Shar khog 54 ;

notions of enclosure 20n15 ;

Qulaci 52n135 ;

Khalkha 55 ;

Khoshut 55, 77 ;

“Tartars,” 55 ;

Tümed 48, 50, 51, 54–55, 67 ;

campaigns against 76–77 ;

Beijing policies towards 48–52; 249 ;

in Qing law 84–85 .

Nian Gengyao, Zunghar Mongols

mosques in Songpan, East Hill 22 ,

Lower 22n18 ,

North 22n18, 93–94 ;

Gongbei 93 ;

post-Mao revival and state management 385–87 .

Hui

Mouni(gou), in Ming 50 ;

classification of people 62n169 ;

customs 111, 63n170, 120n167 ;

trade 142 ;

in PRC 208, 238, 257 ;

tusi 112, 139, 257 ;

in myth 208 ;

as tourist attraction 290, 293, 309 ;

monastery 350

Mt Emei 176, 181, 182, 184, 214, 287, 302

Mt Kailasa 180

Mt Kongpo lari 180

Multicolored Lake(s) 205, 334, 369 .

“Golden Lakes,” Huanglong, “Sertso.”

Nangzhig monastery (Duihesi) 35, 135–36, 39, 348, 354n34

Nanjing as capital 26, 39, 144, 151, 152, 169

Nanping, its buluo 74 ;

as garrison 59, 79, 88, 90, 113, 115, 134 ;

Han tuguan of 103–4n123, 108 ;

Han acculturation 105 ;

indigene disturbances 107–8, 107n32, 109n137, 113 ;

as market 141, 215 ;

mixed Han/Tibetan population 59, 79, 113 ;

and opium 59, 159, 161, 165, 175 ;

renamed Jiuzhaigou in 1998 .

Jiuzhaigou

nationalism, Chinese 3, 125–27, 317, 423 ;

Qing view of China 70 ;

idea of nation 63 ;

Han-dominated 3, 11n1, 127, 139, 327 ;

absence of 151 ;

cf ethnic identity 238, 312–14, 375 ;

“local nationalism,” 266 ;

sacred component in 322 ;

religion and 416 ;

dragon symbol 319 ;

drive to integrate borderland 270, 379 .

ethnic identity

nationalism, Tibetan 422 .

Tibetan identity, Nyemo incident

Nationalists (Guomindang), opium and 150–69 ;

Red Army and 143–49 ;

propaganda teams 133n31 ;

1952–53 Aba insurrections 226–34, 381 ;

cf PRC 231, 241–4, 257, 260, 265, 267, 360, 360n46, 378 .

Chiang Kai-shek, Deng Xihou

Nian Gengyao 13-point proposal of 1724 76–78, 77n19, 80, 83, 84, 100–1

nunnery, Rag Yungdrung kha 34

Nyanzom gon (Yancong si) 34

Nyemo incident 269n168

Nyingma(pa) , see Buddhism (Tibetan)

Nyíri, Pál 293, 327

opium, campaigns against 133, 133n31, 139, 153; 156–61 ;

resistance to eradication 160–65 ;

consumption 134 ;

economy 123, 138, 151–52, 158 ;

spread of poppy 156 ;

by region 136, 159 ;

by ethnicity 158–59, 159n110 .

Gown Brotherhood, Wang Yineng

Ortai 77

Panchen Lama 99, 149

Panluozhi 19n10

Panzhou 18, 19, 19–20n10, 34, 53, 79, 80n32, 83 .

Ruoergai

Papa lama 349, 355

People’s Liberation Army (PLA), establishing control in Songpan 223, 224, 226–28, 228n19 ;

in anti-Nationalist campaigns 233–34, 240 ,

in Democratic Reform 246 ,

suppressing insurrection 248, 249 ;

land confiscated for its use 257 ;

during Cultural Revolution 264, 267, 268 ;

and Dazhai campaign 270

Perdue, Peter 77, 86n57, 101n111, 331n37

pilgrimage, expression of differences at 3, 35 ;

pilgrimage theory 172–73 ;

and circumambulation at Shar dung ri 7, 174, 177, 180–83, 187–88, 213, 218, 220, 313 .

Shar dung ri, Huanglong

Pingfan camp, established at Huangsha 59, 79, 87, 105, 108, 113, 160–61n116

Pingwu 123, 144, 145, 153, 182, 281 ;

and Huanglong pilgrimage 181, 183, 215 ;

and opium and official corruption 162 ;

reassigned Xiaohe 238 .

Fu River, east road

pollution, ritual and tourism 347, 362, 384, 400, 416 ;

ritual and women 346 ;

environmental 281, 297, 310 .

purity

population 20, 33, 46, 67, 87, 112, 118 ;

changing ethnic ratios 130n20, 133–35, 134n33, n35, 238–39, 255–56, 256n123, 376, 382 ;

class analysis 243–44, 250, 250n98 .

Han in-migration

preceptor, state 27, 28, 38 ;

Chan (Bon) 27, 28, 38

priest/patron relationship 49, 103 .

Dalai Lama

purity, ritual 175, 177, 347, 361, 387 ;

environmental 362 .

pollution

Qiang 1, 2, 3, 7, 16, 17, 18 ;

Fan and Qiang 9, 9n16 ;

differentiation from “Fan,” 63–66 ;

proto-Qiang 66, 132 (Boluozi) ;

agrarianized 63–66, 105, 123, 169, 239 ;

modern classification of 129–30 ;

post-Mao upsurge of Qiang population 377 ;

participation in temple festivals 394–95 .

acculturation, Maozhou

Qianlong emperor, expansive policy 69 ;

conquered territories and 80–84 ;

on Zunghar Mongols 75, 85 ;

Bon monasteries 100–2

Qiming 44, 62n169, 114, 139–40n45, 142, 238

Qinghai 1, 5, 7 ,

Qing campaigns in 75–88 ;

Qing attacks on monasteries in 100–1 ,

Bon survival in 102 ;

trade in 113, 142 ;

Qing law on indigenes of 119 ;

as part of ethnographic Tibet 77, 381, 422 ;

Tibetan Buddhist vs Bon in 383n20, 422 ;

Mongols in 51 .

Kokonor

Qinghai lake 49

Qiu Jun 43

Railroad Protection Alliance (Sichuan) in 1911 116, 117

Rangtang (T: Dzamtang) 26–27, 28n44, 34, 237, 250 ;

in Cultural Revolution 263–64, 268, 274

Red Army 143–51 ;

and Nationalist blockade 143, 145, 152, 360 ;

and indigenes 145–50, 226n10, 249n95, 335n2 ;

effect on Songpan region 145, 145n66, 149, 159n110, 227, 322 ;

and tusi 148–49; 167, 168, 181, 224 ;

and monasteries 146, 147, 149 ;

First Front Red Army 144, 150, 144, 146 ;

Fourth Front Red Army 144, 150 ;

commemoration of 233n44, 309, 320–22, 411, 415 .

Long March, PLA

regional/ethnic identity , see Songpan identity

religion, in Ming, Tibetan 27–37 ;

Mongols and Gelugpa 49, 54 ;

Qing Songpan 88–99 ;

Shar dung ri and Huanglong poems, origin stories, iconography and buildings 169–222; 338–41, 344, 345–47, 365, 373–74 ;

Songpan elderly Chinese and revival 195, 214, 215, 338–47 ;

and tourism 347 .

Bon/Bonpo, Buddhism (Chinese), Buddhism (Tibetan), City God Temple, ethnicity and religion, Huanglong festival, Huanglong temples, monasteries, religious policy, tourism (religious), Yao the Good

religious policy 41–43 ;

as soft power in borderland 94–100 ;

clashes with the monasteries 100–4 ;

religion and state in PRC 334–37, 350–53 ;

“unity of government and religion,” as target 94–95, 223, 244, 275 ;

religion as “feudal superstition,” 389, 395n27, 400 ;

religious tourism and commodification of religion 347, 354–58 .

religion, tsowa/buluo, Zhizhong, Zhufengxu

Ren Shumin 28n45

Ren Yutong 225

Repentance grain tax 123, 124, 126, 137, 270

Rewu(gou) 34, 123, 126, 142, 255, 257, 290n45, 353

Rinpung monastery 93n85, 125–26, 138, 227, 348, 354n34 ;

abbot as mediator in 1860 insurrection 107, 109–12, 116, 127, 414, 415 ;

as leader of the Gamel ginka 348, 355, 357, 360 ;

rejects tourism 356, 372 ;

seeks participation in tourism 359–61 ;

Middle Temple and 358–62, 372–73 ;

Hwa-shang dance 126, 359, 397 ;

monastic festival 407 ;

in Republic 138 ;

in United Front 227 .

Huanglong temples

ritual scriptures, Chinese: imperially bestowed 41 ;

hand-copied 399 ;

recited for Kangxi’s birthday 192 ;

recited for Huanglong 201, 201n91, 214, 218, 339, 346, 346n20, 390, 390–91n25, 407 .

Chinese Classics

ritual scriptures, Tibetan 249 ;

printed 99 ;

donated 102 ,

read by rebel child 107 ,

chanted 398 ;

turned on prayer wheel 42, 92, 358 ;

prayer wheel used by Chinese 115–16, 128, 406 ;

hung out 180, 361–62 ;

destroyed by Red Army 132–33 ;

to defeat Communists 228 ;

in United Front 255n122 ;

destroyed in Four Olds movement 263–64 ;

belief in efficacy 361–62

rituals, borrowed 219–20 ;

calendar 121, 125–26; 172–73, 176, 374–75 ;

competition for ritual space 185–86, 338–53, 358–64 ;

and Cultural Revolution 249, 252, 254n116 ;

gifts received 47–48 ;

and Gown Brotherhood 153–55 ;

political rituals 78, 112, 242 ;

at Pool of Turning Flowers 218–19 ;

specialists 65 ;

Tibetan home rituals 25, 363, 407 ;

and tourists 326, 329 .

circumambulation, indirect rule, mandala, tribute

Rong, or Xirong 130, 132

Ruoergai (T: Zuoerge) 99, 114, 376 ;

and Mongols 50, 53–54 ;

and Labrang 95, 114 ;

in Republic 142, 169 ;

a county in PRC 236, 238, 376 ;

and Democratic Reform 246–47, 260 ;

insurgencies in 225, 248, 268, 273 .

Panzhou

sacred site/space, shared 3, 4, 6, 6n6, 171–222

Sagant, Philippe 252, 404

Sakyamuni (Shijia mouni) 33, 197, 219, 411

Sakyapa 33, 36, 37, 391 ;

in Shar khog 34, 35, 43, 72, 72n8, 99 ;

lineage 185 ;

Qiuji si 275n186 ;

Chone 99

SARS crisis (2003) 294, 300, 307–8, 347

schools, Ming and Qing 87, 89, 95, 101, 109 ;

in early Republic 127, 139 ;

Nationalist period 151, 222, 335, 360 ;

Chinese (PRC) 254, 255, 271n173, 377–80, 419–20 ;

for Tibetan language (PRC) 271, 377, 377–30, 423 ;

for ethnic performance 333, 380 ;

in Cultural Revolution 261–62, 267 ;

Tibetan monastic, (gling, colleges) 35, 127, 352–53, 360 .

education

Schrempf, Mona 354n34, 359n45, 363n52, 397, 398

scripture-turning pavilion 42 .

ritual scriptures, Tibetan

sects, conflicts among . see Buddhism: Tibetan sects

Serbo gon (Xiaobao si, Xuebu si) 42, 97, 97n100, 98, 112, 225, 227, 396

Sertso (Golden Lakes) 5, 171–75, 177, 183, 205, 416 ;

as hotel 359 .

Huanglong

Shakya, Tsering 269n168, 419n14

Shangba 27, 38, 114 ;

Shanba 27n30, 35, 34 (as county)

Shangniba si, aka Shangliba si (Sakya sect) 35, 43, 111, 72 .

Asitong, Adong

Shar dung ri (Conch Mountain of the East) 5, 7, 14, 35, 42, 64, 213, 218, 415, as a Bon holy mountain 173–88 ;

and Tibetan pilgrimage 174, 179–85, 348, 348n22 ;

in Tibetan Bon sacred geography 176 ;

temple festival 179–85, 217–20, 358, 394, 405 ;

with Tibetan Buddhism 177, 185–85 ;

as territorial god 177 ;

mystical experience with 220 ;

myth 177–79, 186–88 ;

gendered and Tibetan landscape at 179 ;

three circuits of Bon pilgrimage 180–83, 348 ;

Tibetan myths and stories about 176–79, 183–84; 186–87 ;

Long-haired lama of 185 ;

and Qiang 64 ;

Chinese and 42, 189, 194, 220, 405 ;

in Reform period 347–48 ;

Rinpung monastery and 358–62 ;

environmental protection of 332 ;

tourism and ritual pollution 362 ;

parallel worship 194, 213–21 .

Buddhism (Chinese), circumambulation, Huanglong World Heritage site; Huanglong (Yellow Dragon), pilgrimage, Rinpung monastery, Xuebao ding (Snow Treasure Peak/Tripod)

Shar khog, Higher Min valley 4 ;

kounei, within-the-passes 134n35 ;

topography 6, 37 ;

agropastoral economy 65, 85, 187, 230 ;

early settlement 17–18 ;

the Sharwa or Shar ba people 6, 354n34 ;

sense of identity 68 ;

migration 62–63 ;

its tsowa 28, 65–68, 137 ;

its tuguan 94, 138, 168 ;

and Songpan garrison 72–75, 85, 421 ;

strength of Bon in 34–36, 34n66, 118, 185, 348, 349, 382 ;

landholdings in Shar khog 354, 354n34 ;

contrasted with Maozhou 64 ;

consciousness of Tibet in 381–83, 398, 417, 420–22 ;

social change in Republic 135 ;

Tibetan communities 187, 348 ;

education in 379, 379n11 .

Bon monasteries, Huanglong festival, kounei/kouwai, Songpan, trade

Shen Shixing 57–58

sheng Fan 29, 31, 37, 64, 129, 131, Fig. 3.2, 134

sheng, shu (raw, cooked) defined 23, 61–62, 69 ;

connections 62–63 .

Fan

Shenxiandong (Transcendent’s Grotto) 206 .

Huanglong (Yellow Dragon)

Shepherd, John 20n11

Shin, Leo 11, 25n29, 55

shu Fan 48, 50, 69, 116, 128, 131, Fig. 3.2, 134, 169

shu Qiang (friendly Qiang) 51

Sichuan, in Qing campaigns against Mongols and Tibet 76, 85 ;

as a new frontier with Tibet 86 .

Dai Yingcong, governors-general, grand coordinators

Sinangri 25–26

singing, at Huanglong 1, 220 ,

antiphonic (Qiang) 2 ;

responsive 213 ;

as mark of ethnic harmony 3, 393 ;

officially improved for tourists 312 ;

on stage 298, 327 ;

throat singing 219–20, 298, 327, 410 .

dance, ethnic performance

Sino-Muslims , see Hui

Sixteenth administrative district, Sichuan 139–40n45, 151, 226

slaves, serfs 30, 84, 132, 244, 254n155 (Liangshan) ;

Tibetan as “slave society,” 422 .

jiwa

Snow Mountain State Preceptor 51–52, 52n135

social elites , see elites

soft-power, Ming 41–43 ;

Qing 94–100, 191–92 .

religion, United Front, Zhizhong, Zhufengxu

soldier-farmer settlements (tun), soldier-farmers (tunbing) 23

Sonam Gyatso 49 . see Dalai Lama (3rd)

Songpan (T: Zungchu) 1, 4, 5, 7, 69 ,

Ming wall and city plan 19, 20–22, 22n18 ;

extensions of 39, 45 ;

difficult access 6, 6n8, 71, 128–29, 410 ;

strategic location 75 ;

as garrison city 6, 14 ;

as camp (in Qing) 71, 72, 80 ;

indigene attacks on 72 ;

Chinese cosmological order and 14, 88–94 ;

regional identity in 70, 117, 221, 384, 400–7, 416 ;

in Han 16 ;

in Tang 17–18 ;

in Song 19 ;

in Yuan 18, 22, 36 ;

in Qing 69–70 ;

besieged and sacked 107–8 ;

recovered 111 ;

in Republic 138 ;

Japanese bombing of 153 ;

ethnic residence in 377 ;

as county in PRC 410, 412–3 ;

would-be tourism focus 288–93, 304 ;

dialect of 378 ;

temple festivals 394 ;

economic development 87 .

City God Temple, Greater Songpan, Hui, Monastery of Great Compassion, Songpan garrison, Songzhou

Songpan consciousness or identity 117, 121, 397, 400–2, 406, 409, 421

Songpan, garrison (Ming) 4, 18, 19–20, 71 ;

(Qing) 7 ;

difficulty in supplying 23 ;

proposals to relocate 20, 23, 43 ;

strategic importance in Ming 20n11, 24, 58, 69 ;

interdynastic survival 71–72, 75 ;

restructuring in early Qing 79–80 ;

its troops in Qinghai 76–77, 86 ,

vs Golok 82 ,

in Zhandui and Jinchuan 86 ;

loss of strategic importance in Qing 75–88, 117–18, 123, 412 .

insurrections (1860–61), (1911)

Songtsan Gampo 17–18, 56, 56n148 ;

his soldiers settled in Shar khog 174 ;

as putative ancestors 18, 56, 61, 318 ;

in historical memory 120, Fig. 7.1, 316–17, 319, 408

Songzhou (Tang to Song) 40 ;

symbolic rebuilding for tourism 288–93

south road, forts and fences 23, 44, 55, 72, 79 ;

patrolled 5 ;

intercepted or cut 40, 45, 46 ;

granaries 44 ;

improved 285

Soviet Union (USSR) 235, 313

Sperling, Elliot 27n35, 28n44, 31n54

State Council, on ethnic nomenclature 238n54 ;

on Aba organization 239 ;

on tourism 281–82, 289, 306, 312, 313, 314, 330 ;

on religion 336, 390n34

state, the . see Beijing, Ming reigns, Nanjing, local officials, Qing reigns, Sichuan, State Council

Su Yonghe (T: Dorjie Pasang) 150n79, 226 ;

opium wealth of 167n134 ;

in Nationalist/Communist wars 149–50, 167, 232 ;

territorial conflict with Megyal 167, 229 ;

and Dalai Lama 234–35 ;

Democratic Reform 257–58 ;

exile and return 258 .

the Great tusi, Heishui

Suo Guanying, in Nationalist/Communist wars 150n79, 167 ;

and United Front 226, 233 ;

and Democratic Reform 257–58 ;

in Lhasa 257 ;

persecution and death in Cultural Revolution 265 .

the Great tusi, Zhuokeji, Maerkang (Barkam)

Tan Xisi 54

Tantric Buddhism, practice 33, 97 ;

deities 56, 177

Taozhou 50

tea 19 ;

in Song 24, 24n25, 25n26 ;

tea-horse trade in Ming 7, 22, 38, 48 ;

in Qing 75, 80, 118 ;

boiled tea 34, 85–86, 86n57 ;

tea licenses 48

temple/monastic festivals, general; economy of 335, 335n4, 363 ;

and tourism 335–7 .

City God temple festival, Huanglong temple festival, Shar dung ri

Tianbao (Sangye Yeshi) 233, 247, 266, 266n10

Tibet 1, 7 ;

Buddhism in 32–33 ;

Nyemo incident 269–70n168 ;

Nyingchi 180 ;

Zhang chung 33 ;

Qing invasion and absorption of 117 ;

CIA airdrops 232n39 .

Tubo

Tibet question 418–24

Tibet, Central 26, 31, 34, 181–82, 183, 381, 383, 418 ;

U-zang 17 .

Lhasa

Tibet, ethnographic 17, 37, 237, 245, 260, 412, 418–19, 422, 424, 426 ;

=cultural Tibet 37 .

Fan, Xifan

Tibet, political 412, 424 ;

and ethnographic Tibet created 77, 86 ;

Tibet proper 242, 245, 255, 260, 264, 269n168 ;

TAR 424 .

Lhasa, Central Tibet, Dalai Lama

Tibetan identity 418 ;

proto- , 120, 417 ;

imagined realm 234, 382–83 ;

sacred mountains 175–179, 181 ;

martial values 56 ;

common cultural features 418 ;

borderland Tibetans in Qing law 84 ;

as understood by Nian Gengyao 77 ;

pan-Tibetan identity, Chinese citizenship, and Chinese nationalism 383–4, 419–24 ;

all-Tibet sentiment 245–46 ;

revolt 1956–58, 419 ;

resistance movement 419, 419n14 ;

Zangzu 5, 9, 9n16, 414, 418 .

Amdo, ethnographic Tibet, Fan/Xifan, minzu, Tubo

Tibetan language, disadvantaged 378–80

Tibetan revolts , see insurrections

Tonpa Shenrab 33, 218, 358, 362 ;

and Kyangpak lama 178, 206 ;

as Yellow Dragon the Perfected 403

tourism 2–4, 12, 277–310 ;

under attack 302–4 ;

ecotourism 306 ;

environmentalism and 3, 4, 15, 297 ;

site competition 287–88, 290–91, 290n43, 295 ;

Tibetans in 362–64 ;

monasteries and 364 ;

religious tourism 9, 11, 336–37, 354–58 .

tourist culture

tourist culture 11, 288, 311–33 ;

pre-modern 330 ;

ethnic color 311–15 ;

narratives of Tang history 315–19 ;

of Red Army history 319–22 ;

of new symbols 322–24 ;

photography 320, 322, 326, 332 ;

commodification of Tibetan culture 420, 324, 357 ;

ethnic souvenirs 267, 300, 326, 355, 358, 362

trade 46, 79, 93, 140–43, 135–36, 156, 317–19 ;

trans-ethnic 128, 140–43 ;

policy of control via trade 80 ;

out of official control in Republic 118 ;

trading bands 141–43 .

merchants, tea trade, tribute system

tribute system, in Ming 28–32 ,

mutual benefit of 36, 43, 50 ;

abuse of 60–61 ;

in Qing 79–82, 100, 103n121 ;

defunct in Republic 137 .

indirect rule, tusi, Zunghar

troops, quality 45, 46, 46n112

Tsabtsa lama , see lineage, religious; Gamel monastery

Tsewang Rabdan 76, 77 .

Mongols

Tsongkhapa 27, 234

tsowa/buluo, defined 7n11, 25, 132 ,

in commerce 142–43 ;

internal solidarity of 9n16, 65 ;

“unity of government and religion” critiqued in 94–95, 223, 244, 275 ;

and Mongol contacts 50, 54 ;

Ming map, Fig. 1.1; Qing map and list 72–74 ;

Republican consolidation of 167n131 ;

competition and feuding among 25, 137 ;

payments to 51 ;

variable stability and systemic persistence of 25, 29, 31, 35, 44, 146 ;

religious and secular power in 25, 36, 42 ;

relative autonomy from state 6, 24–33, 40–45, 52n13, 160, 167 ;

resistance to state 29, 31, 56–57 ;

72 buluo and camps in Qing , see and Fig. 2.2 (73–74), 78, 79–80, 134 ;

tax payment to Qing camps 72, 79, 105–6, 112, 118, 123 ;

plunder and robbery by 81–82 (Goloks) ;

and Qing law 83–85 ;

and monasteries 94–95, 119–20, 411 ;

and identity 418 .

tusi

tu baihu 79, 82, 84, 100 .

tuguan and tusi

tu qianhu 78, 84, 100, 103, 107 .

tuguan and tusi

tu shoubei 103, 108, 113

Tubo 57, 120, 316 .

Tibet

Tuguan , see tusi system

Tulku Cheng/Kalsang Gyatso 98

Tümed , see Mongols

tumu 79, 85

Turner, Victor and Edith 172

tusi system: origin of 18; 24–32 ;

local chieftains’ relative autonomy under 6, 14, 411, 417 ;

titles and hereditary transmission, Ming 25, 26n32, 28, 29, 30–31 ;

Ming tusi commission(er)s, Conciliation, xuanweisi 43 ;

Pacification (anfusi) 25 ;

Placation, xuanfusi 29 ;

Qing titles and certificates 75, 81–82, 112–13 ;

advantages for chiefs of status 25–26, 28, 29, 31 ;

oppressiveness of 28 ;

revolt against 28n45 ;

residences of 32 ;

and Ming court policy 38–39, 44–45 .

In Qing 78–79 ,

responsibilities in Qing law 84 ;

local chieftains, autonomy under 78, 411 ;

tribute to capital 79 ;

supervised by garrisons/camps 83, 100 ;

tusi forces used for official purposes 46, 78, 82, 84, 114, 143, 162 ;

role in anti-Qing insurrections 107, 108, 111, 117, 119–20, 123 ;

put down by Qing campaigns 82; 114, 119, 412, 417 ;

as monastic sponsors and leaders 8, 36, 94–95, 102 ;

as leaders of tsowa 84, 94, 102 ;

titles ceased to be hereditary 113 ;

deterioration in early Republic 124, 137–40 ;

in civil war 149–50 ;

and anti-opium campaign 157–58, 160–62, 163n121 ;

local officials, frontier (feudalism), indirect rule, tsowa/buluo, the Great tusi

Tuyuhun 173, 312

Ulanhu 235, 247n88

UNESCO World Biosphere, Huanglong 297, 332, 359 ;

Jiuzhaigou 297

UNESCO World Heritage, natural and cultural sites distinguished 311–12, 325 ;

profitability of Aba’s sites 295, 322 ;

other Chinese sites 295, 299 .

Huanglong as UNESCO World Heritage site

United Front 223–42, 412

Upper Min, defined 4n7, 9n16 ;

nationality blending in 16 ,

and Amdo 18 .

Distinguish Higher Min

Vairotsana 34, 177, 206

Vasantkumar, Chris 221n127, 384

vice-commanders (fuzongbing) at Songpan in Ming 39 ;

Yang Hong 38 ;

Yao Yu 40 ;

Zhang Jie 45 ;

Li Yingxiang 51

violence, indigene 55–59 ;

official 55–59, 65–68, 102 ;

Chenghua emperor on border officials’ predisposition to 58 ;

rationalized, Chinese 51–52, 55, 57–59 ;

Tibetan 56 ;

group consciousness and 68 .

banditry, feuds, insurrections, military campaigns

Waldron, Arthur 48n121

Waley-Cohen, Joanna 102

walls, Songpan city 6, 19–20, 39–40, 45, 71, 79, 88 90 ;

failure 105 ;

meanings of 20, 46, 121, 137, 419 ;

ethnic/cultural separation by 21–22, 31, 128, 238, 377 ;

Qing de-emphasis 71, 83 ;

for Zhangla 19n10 ;

for smaller garrisons 79 ;

for tourism in PRC 290–91, 316–18, 389 .

Hui, Kou Shen, Songzhou

Wang Chonggu 50–51

Wang Geleg (Ch: Wang Elai) 186, 186n43, 224, 256, 257, 265, 379

Wang Lixiong 269n168

Wang Mingke 63, 130, 132, 132n25

Wang Weigang 125

Wang Yineng 162–66, 168

Wang Yuanhui (Tianyuan) 161, 410

Weiner, Benno 225n7

Weizhou 31, 43, 45, 57

Weller, Robert P. 332, 362n50

Wencheng, Princess 17, 316–18, Fig. 7.1

Wenchuan 7, 16, 63, 65, 105, 120, 132, 136, 192n59, 230, 241, 244, 246, 273, 287n32, 289 .

earthquakes, Qiang

Williams, Dee Mack 20n15, 56n148

Wilson, Ernest Henry 194, 195, 308

Wolong 65

women, indigenes with bound feet 128 ;

Tibetan courting songs at Huanglong 184, 216 ;

Tibetan gendered religious landscape 179 ;

Lady Baima and Chinese gendered religious landscape 403–44, 407 ;

women’s association in Republic 152 ,

in PRC 230 ;

women’s representation in government and party 240, 240n62, 271–72, 272n177 ;

Tibetans’ jewelry confiscated in Cultural Revolution 266 ;

Tibetan, in tourist representations 315, 326 ;

elder Chinese in temple revival 339–40, 344–45, 373–74 ;

elder women pilgrims 347 ;

elder women hosting City God festival 399–400 ;

performing mortuary rites 400 ;

running Guanyin tang 406–7 ;

city women tourists 329 ;

tourists and local pollution beliefs 346 ;

in tourist mythology 323 .

Guanyin, Huanglong temples, nunnery, Wencheng (Princess)

World Heritage . see UNESCO

Wu Jigai 125, 127, 169

Wu Sangui 72, 75

Wuxian temple 395

Xia Yuxiu, Songpan commander 98 ,

grassland campaign 113–15, 116

Xiaohe 79, 88, 108, 134, 164n124, 183, 238

Xiao Heishui 53, 130n20, 132n25, 231, 238 .

Boluozi

Xiaoxing, in Ming 52n35, 62n169, 189 ;

in Qing 107 ;

and Nationalist authority 160–61n16, 161 ;

in PRC 231 ;

dependent on Gamel 353

Xie Peijun 139–40n45

Xining (Qinghai), and Hui 22 ,

as strategic frontier town 22, 48, 54, 70, 75–78 ;

as trading center 72, 72n10, 75, 80, 81, 85, 113, 140 ;

and Songpan 76 ;

as Qing military and administrative headquarters 76, 83n50 ;

and Kokonor 77, 78 ;

Mongol pilgrimage to Lhasa via 85, 86n57 ;

proximity to monasteries 28, 100, 86n57 .

Labrang

Xinjiang 86, 117, 235, 388, 412, 419

Xishendong (Grotto for Bathing) 206 .

Huanglong (Yellow Dragon)

Xu Yuantai 47–48, 51–52

Xue Zhaoqian 29, 38

Xuebao ding (Snow Treasure Peak/Tripod; aka Shar dung ri) 5, 184–87, 187n45, 194, 205, 207, 208, 214, 220, 290, 309, 313, 315, 332, 403–4, 405 .

Shar dung ri

Yak/Sheep heads 62, 62n169

Yang Fuchuan 152

Yang Yifan 161

Yang Yinglong 53, 53n138

Yangling Dorje 272–74

Yangliu 47, 51

Yao the Good (Yao Liqing) 200, 334, 364–372, 373, 374, 415

Yao Yu 40, 41, 91, 91n81

Yellow Dragon . see Huanglong, Yu the Great

Yellow Emperor 16, 314

Yongzheng emperor 75, 77, 81, 86, 101

Yu the Great 16, 205 ,

and Yellow Dragon 198, 206, 206n100, 218, 313, 369–70 ;

in Huanglong myth 207–8 ;

Qiang and 207, 210 ;

in Chinese national myth 210, 218, 319, 374 .

culture heroes

Yu the Great shrine at Huanglong, aka Dragon King shrine 206, 339, 340, 341, 345 ,

rebuilt by elder women 373 ;

and Yao the Good 369

Yue Zhongqi 76–77, 77n19, 78, 79, 80, 81, 96n94, 100–1, 114, 115

Yungdrung lhateng (Yongzhonglading) 33–34, 101, 102 .

Bon, Guangfa si

Yungdrung , see Bon

Zagu 31, 62n169, 81

Zhandui , see campaigns, military

Zhang Dian 125, 127

Zhang Guotao 144, 146, 148, 263, 350n26

Zhang Jie 45

Zhang Juzheng 48, 50, 51

Zhang Shiche 61n165

Zhang Xianzhong 71, 75, 87, 101

Zhang Yuanzuo, Songpan commander 79, 79n27, 86, 91n79, 96n94, 98, 331n38, 396

Zhang Zhongyin 91n81, 107–8, 107–8n135, 111, 125

Zhang zhung (kingdom) 33

Zhangla, garrison/fort 19, 19–20n10, 40, 88 ;

defenses 54, 55n145 ;

siege of 54n142 ;

granary 72n5; 126 ;

in Qing, overseeing the pastureland tsowa/buluo 72, 80, 85, 88, 113 ;

Chinese academy at 87 ;

temples at 340, 391n25, 407, 90, 91n77 ;

settlements near 50, 55 ;

raid on (1596) 52n135, 54n142 ;

in 1860 insurrection 108, 109 ;

commander clashes with lama 104 ;

airfield 144, 152, 153 .

gold mining

Zhao Ziyang 272–74, 280, 283

Zhaojue Monastery 96, 97n98, 98, 181, 191, 214

Zheng Luo 54

Zhenping district 150, 162, 231 .

forts

Zhizhong, Lofty Goodness Chan preceptor 41–43, 96, 97

Zhou Enlai, and Tibetans 148, 317 ;

and minority nationalities 235, 248 ;

and Dalai Lama 245 ;

and Cultural Revolution 266

Zhou Wenying 95, 96, 96n94 ,

and Huanglong 190–91

Zhou Ying 77, 96n94

Zhou Yongkang 294n56, 305, 310n94

Zhubarangbu 26, 28

Zhufengxu 95–97, 98, 191, 214

Zhuocangzang 260, 265

Zhuokeji 144, 146, 168 .

Maerkang

Zingchu, aka Min River

Zito, Angela 94

Zungchu, aka Songpan

Zunghar Mongols, and Tibet 75–77 ;

tribute trade to Lhasa 85–86, 86n57 ;

campaigns against 86, 100

Zitierungsangaben

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Contesting the Yellow Dragon

Ethnicity, Religion, and the State in the Sino-Tibetan Borderland, 1379-2009

Reihe: Religion in Chinese Societies, Band: 10

ISBN:: 9789004319233

Verleger:: Brill

Print-Publikationsdatum:: 01 Aug 2016

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Contesting the Yellow Dragon

Ethnicity, Religion, and the State in the Sino-Tibetan Borderland, 1379-2009

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