In recent times, the question of Divine Action (DA) has been a central theme in both theology and the philosophy of religion. It mainly seeks to understand whether and how God interacts with the world, including Him sustaining the creation, guiding events, responding to human prayers, etc. Among these numerous discussions, this study engages with petitionary prayer in particular because it plays a crucial role and gives rise to various philosophical and theological questions as it involves humans invoking God to act by requesting something in their supplications. Since there has been a striking lack of engagement from an Islamic perspective to this field compared to the significant contribution of contemporary Christian theology and philosophy, this work seeks to address this gap by exploring DA through the lens of “Islamic” petitionary prayer. As such, it is motivated by a desire to move beyond usual Islamic discussions on causality or free will, and to develop a coherent alternative model capable of responding to old and modern challenges.
Hence, I attempt to offer a systematic and philosophical analysis of petitionary prayer within an Islamic framework, considering both its theological underpinnings and its philosophical and conceptual challenges. To do so, I engage with key discussions on DA, which include the nature of petitionary prayer, divine attributes such as immutability and temporality, and the broader metaphysical questions surrounding God’s relationship with time. More specifically, I explore some fundamental questions such as: How should petitionary prayer be defined in an Islamic context? What theological and philosophical challenges does it face? Can a model of petitionary prayer be formulated in a way that will account for both divine responsiveness and human freedom? How does the nature of time and divine (a)temporality impact the efficacy of prayer? In the final chapter, I bring the elements from these questions together to construct what I call the Dynamic Relational Model (DRM) of petitionary prayer.
Coming to methodology, although this work is primarily grounded in the Islamic tradition, it also engages in constructive theological reflection with other traditions, particularly Christianity, to clarify key issues and formulate responses. In this regard, I employ a specific comparative theological approach known as “Confessional Comparative Theology”.1 Very often, I use Christian sources not only to highlight shared challenges but also to consider responses that may be applicable across both traditions.
Given the Islamic foundation of this study, a significant number of classical Islamic sources have been examined to draw parallels, establish connections, and identify areas of convergence with both medieval and contemporary discussions. In doing so, I try to let the sources speak for themselves as much as possible and ensure that the connections emerge organically rather than being imposed, such that one bypasses the considerations of different theology, language, philosophical history, and the meaning of concepts.
Additionally, I follow the analytical tradition of philosophy and use its methods to bring classical Islamic sources into conversation with contemporary discussions to enhance the possibility of dialogue between different traditions. However, I do not employ heavily symbolic logic, as doing so would significantly narrow the potential readership. Instead, I ensure that all important terms are clearly defined to minimize ambiguity and enhance the clarity of argumentation. This is not only to strengthen the logical structure of the work but also to allow for greater engagement and critique. Moreover, while my arguments are presented in a “natural” language format, they remain easily translatable into symbolic logic for those who wish to analyze them in that way.
Concerning the impact and intended audience, the work advances discussions on DA and petitionary prayer in general and especially within Islamic thought, as it offers a different perspective that integrates analytical philosophy and comparative theology. Furthermore, it challenges classical views on divine immutability and temporality and provides a framework and model for understanding God’s responsiveness in a way that aligns with contemporary philosophical and theological discourse. Furthermore, by employing a confessional approach, the work fosters deeper engagement between Islamic and Christian traditions and implicitly shows how shared philosophical challenges can lead to mutual enrichment. It also opens up new avenues not only for Muslim-Christian dialogue but also for atheists on the topic of prayer and God’s action. Since the work also engages modern philosophical debates on time, it contributes to ongoing discussions about how different theories of time impact theological concepts. Beyond academia, the study has implications for religious practice, especially for believers who struggle with understanding how or whether their prayers are received and answered. It provides a coherent theological model that affirms divine responsiveness while preserving human agency. As such, the work is expected to be valuable for theologians, scholars, and practitioners across different traditions.
Therefore, the intended audience for this work includes scholars in the philosophy of religion and theology, particularly those engaged in discussions on DA, petitionary prayer, and divine attributes across religious traditions. It will also be valuable for Islamic Studies scholars focusing on classical and contemporary Islamic theology, philosophy, and Qurʾānic Studies. Additionally, comparative theologians working on Muslim-Christian dialogue may find the study beneficial, as it highlights shared philosophical challenges. Given its engagement with theories of time and their theological implications, the work is also relevant to philosophers of time and metaphysics. Beyond academia, religious practitioners and clergy who guide believers in understanding prayer, divine responsiveness, and human agency may find the study useful. Finally, by addressing broader debates on DA and prayer, the work invites engagement from interfaith thinkers as well as atheists and skeptics who critically explore religious perspectives on these topics.
To develop the discussions systematically, this work is structured into five chapters, and each addresses a crucial aspect of petitionary prayer within the broader framework of DA. The first chapter lays the necessary groundwork by defining DA and situating petitionary prayer within its general and special forms. From there, each subsequent chapter builds upon this foundation and engages with key theological and philosophical challenges before it culminates in the specific model of petitionary prayer in the final chapter. Below is an overview of each chapter and its main arguments.
The first chapter establishes the foundational framework for understanding DA and outlines its significance in both theology and the philosophy of religion. I begin by clarifying the distinction between General Divine Action (GDA) or God’s continuous, sustaining presence in the world and Special Divine Action (SDA) or God’s specific interventions at particular times and places. Within this framework, I examine how petitionary prayer can be conceptualized in both approaches, and I construct different models to illustrate its theological implications. Given that petitionary prayer is more directly associated with SDA, I devote particular attention to the main contemporary challenges confronting SDA. These include the problem of evil, the problem of divine discrepancy, the supposed incompatibility between SDA and science, and the problem of freedom. This is important because any model of petitionary prayer ought to account, at least implicitly, for these philosophical and theological concerns.
In the latter half of the chapter, I assess the current state of discourse on DA within Islamic thought. I highlight the notable absence of extensive Islamic contributions to this field, in contrast to the wealth of discussions in Christian theology and philosophy. The exception to this trend is Altaie’s re-creation model, to which I give special attention. In the last part of the chapter, I explore the intersection of miracles and petitionary prayer, where I address the question of whether divine responses to prayer necessarily entail miracles.
The second chapter focuses on the Islamic conception of petitionary prayer, beginning with an analysis of its essential elements, which are identified from the Qurʾān. Building on this foundation, I formulate my own definition of petitionary prayer, which I later compare with traditional definitions put forth by Islamic scholars. A key criticism I raise against the traditional approach is its tendency to define petitionary prayer as necessarily involving a verbal expression. I argue that verbalization is not a necessary condition for formulating a request to God. Beyond defining petitionary prayer, I examine several challenges associated with it. These include the question of whether there are moral limits to what one can ask of God and what God can answer, as well as whether libertarian freedom is a necessary condition for petitionary prayer to be meaningful. Additionally, I explore whether God can respond to the prayers of unbelievers and analyze the ethical complexities of praying for others and when self-directed prayers may have unintended negative consequences for them. In addressing these issues, I emphasize the crucial role of attitudes such as humility and hope, as well as the importance of beliefs and intentions.
The third chapter examines the relationship between divine immutability and petitionary prayer, which is a critical issue in assessing the efficacy of prayer. I begin by exploring the concept of immutability within classical theism, drawing from Christian theology and philosophy. This section outlines the main motivations for upholding divine immutability, as well as the key challenges it faces. I also clarify the distinction between different types of immutability, which provides a necessary framework for the later discussion. Following this, I turn to the Islamic reception of immutability and address how the concept has been treated in both Islamic theology and Islamic philosophy. Each of these perspectives is examined separately to highlight their distinct approaches.
Building on this groundwork, I formulate a scriptural and philosophical critique of strong immutability. This critique is centered on the concept of divine forgiveness, particularly in the context of prayer for forgiveness. I distinguish between forgiveness and pardon and argue that forgiveness inherently involves forbearance of all or some emotions related to resentment. Since a being capable of forgiving must, by necessity, experience some form of emotional responsiveness, I argue that strong immutability, which denies any change in God, is incompatible with the very concept of forgiveness. To further test this model of forgiveness, I examine extreme cases where the harm inflicted is so severe that forgiveness appears nearly impossible. Then, in the final section, I extend my critique of strong immutability through an analysis of divine mercy. Here, I critically engage with both contemporary analytical approaches to mercy and traditional Islamic perspectives and highlight their limitations in adequately accounting for divine mercy.
In chapter 4, I explore the relationship between petitionary prayer and time, recognizing that prayers themselves are unique types of events that occur within the temporal framework. I analyze how different conceptions of the nature of time influence our understanding of both the efficacy of prayer and the way God relates to time. Since DA takes place within time, different models of time impact our theological understanding of the mode of God’s responsiveness to prayer. To illustrate this, I present various models of petitionary prayer based on conceptions of God as either atemporal or temporal. Additionally, I examine how static and dynamic theories of time shape metaphysical commitments and challenges associated with these different models. Rather than advocating for a specific position, this section outlines a range of possibilities and clarifies the implications of each framework.
In the second part of the chapter, I turn to the question of the efficacy of petitionary prayer for the past within the Islamic tradition. I assess whether such prayers are logically possible and then explore how they can be understood within different theories of divine temporality and time itself. Based on this analysis, I highlight the conceptual space for such prayers within Islamic thought, depending on the underlying metaphysical framework one adopts. This chapter does not argue for a particular theory of time but rather serves as a systematic analysis of various possibilities. In doing so, it prepares the groundwork for the final chapter, where these insights contribute to a broader synthesis of my model of petitionary prayer.
In Chapter 5, I undertake a systematic analysis of the concept of divine personhood within the Islamic framework, and I focus especially on how God can be conceived as a relational and responsive agent. I begin by clarifying the important distinction between God being a person and God being only personal, and I mention the potential historical and linguistic reasons behind the traditional Muslim reluctance to affirm divine personhood explicitly, including the absence of exact corresponding terms in Arabic and classical Islamic literature. This reluctance, I argue, is often motivated by concerns about safeguarding divine transcendence from creaturely limitations, such as corporeality and mutability.
Against this backdrop, I argue in favor of understanding God as a “special kind of person” or the ultimate standard of personhood, Who possesses intentionality, freedom, and relational capacity, but without the finitude and imperfection of human persons. To support this claim, I employ a form of univocal predication and analogy that preserves both likeness and unlikeness of God. This exploration serves as a bridge chapter and ultimately provides the conceptual foundation for the constructive work of Chapter 6, where I develop the Dynamic Relational Model (DRM) of petitionary prayer.
With this foundation in place, I turn to the construction of my model of petitionary prayer in Chapter 6. I start by examining the notions of intention and sincerity, linking them to the idea of mutual respect between the petitioner and God. I argue that, due to God’s evaluative respect for sincere prayers, He acknowledges them and responds in a manner that is appropriate. I further contend that divine responses occur through signs, which are inherently ambiguous. This ambiguity serves a crucial function because it preserves human creaturely freedom and allows individuals to either accept or reject a relationship with God. I then return to the question of time and argue for a model of divine temporality. In my view, God has successive experiences, He is the ground of time, and there is some kind of the ultimacy of the present moment. Then, I justify this specific understanding of divine temporality over alternative views and engage with potential objections.
Having identified these key elements, I formally construct DRM. This model envisions prayer as a real and personal dialogue between humans and God and emphasizes both divine responsiveness and human participation. I then integrate all the previously discussed components to explain the mechanism by which this model functions.Then, in the next section, I acknowledge the limitations of the DRM while also addressing potential challenges and objections to my model. By doing so, I outline possible ways to refine and develop the model further and highlight its significance within both Islamic thought and broader discussions on DA.
See Cornille, Catherine. 2020. Meaning and Method in Comparative Theology. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 18.