This thematic volume of Oriens grew out of an international conference on âMusical Sources and Theories from Ancient Greece to the Ottoman Periodâ held online from June 10 to 12, 2021. Contributors examine various processes of transfer of musical ideas and texts, or independent developments, within the Islamic world and beyond. Within the Greek corpus of works on sciences that was translated (directly or indirectly) into Arabic from the eighth to the tenth centuries, musical writings were of great significance, music theory being considered, along with logic and together with arithmetics, geometry, and astronomy, propaedeutic to other divisions of philosophy.1 Arab theorists adopted Greek music theory and adapted it to their own sophisticated musical tradition. Earlier influences of a more practical nature had come from Persia and Byzantium, as musicians traveled there, brought back Persian and Byzantine melodies, and incorporated into their own repertoire whatever pleased their ears. We can trace this development back to Ibn Misǧaḥ (d. during the reign of WalÄ«d I, 86â96/705â15), who is cited by al-Iá¹£fahÄnÄ« (d. shortly after 360/971) as the first creator of the Arab art song, in which he incorporated some musical elements of the Byzantines and Persians. In Persia he learned the local singing and instrument playing, and in Syria he also appropriated Syrian-Byzantine melodies of the oktÅÄchos, a system of âeight (melodic) modiâ (al-luḥūn aṯ-ṯamÄniya) used in Syrian-Byzantine church music. He also learned Persian music played on the Persian lute, the barbaá¹.2 Back in the ḤiǧÄz, he took what he liked from the Byzantine and Persian elements and enriched the Arabic chant with them. With his compositions, he created a new style that was imitated from then on.3 Reports of singers such as the effeminate Ṭuways (d. 92/711) in Madina point to an already established Arab art music on which Ibn Misǧaḥ could build on.4 As can be seen in the person of the famous Abbasid court musician IbrÄhÄ«m al-Mawá¹£ilÄ« (d. 88/804), similar processes of cross-fertilization continued in Abbasid times and had a formative influence on music theory. Since a musical terminology had already been established before the translation movement, the translators of ancient Greek works on music theory were able to draw on the terminology of practitioners, who had transliterated or translated musical terms from Byzantine Greek and Persian.5
Within the framework of Arabo-Islamic sciences and philosophy, the science of music belonged to the mathematical disciplines.6 Their designation as âArabo-Islamicâ is warranted because, at the beginning of their development, treatises on music theory were written exclusively in Arabic, and Arabic terminology has remained in use ever since. The Persian musical tradition continued after the Arab-Islamic conquest, but it was the Arabic literature on music theory that was read, translated, commented on, and adapted by later theorists writing in Persian and, with the rise of the Ottoman Empire, in Ottoman Turkish. Thus, the tenth-century Epistle on music by the IḫwÄn aá¹£-á¹¢afÄʾ was not translated into Persian until the 7th/13th-century, in the Timurid Empire.7 Ibn SÄ«nÄâs DÄniÅ¡nÄma-i Ê¿AlÄʾī, with its chapter on music, is an early 11th-century exception.8 The reception of early Arabic works on music theory continued into the 20th century, when they were used to âreviveâ classical music tradition and in this way to legitimize nationalistic motives (see Olleyâs contribution).
In Islamic societies, the science of music flourished, influencing and interacting with philosophy9 and medicine10 (see Haug in this volume), as well as poetry11 and Sufism12 (see Kleinâs contribution), from the time of the translation movement to the present day. During the time of the translation movement, practical engagement with music, Ä¡inÄʾ (âsingingâ), was distinguished from the study of music theory, mÅ«sÄ«qÄ«.13 Only the latter was understood to be part of the mathematical sciences and treated with reference to ancient Greek music theory, while music-making continued to rely on and develop traditional modal systems, coming with their own terminologies, that had developed from âthe music of local pre-Islamic cultures of Persian, Syrian, and Greek language.â14 But authors of works on mÅ«sÄ«qÄ« were aware of Ä¡inÄʾ, sometimes referring to practitioners or â especially in the case of al-FÄrÄbÄ« â to the instruments and compositional techniques of their time.
The first scholars to write on music in Arabic were ḪalÄ«l b. Aḥmad (d. ca. 175/791) and some of his contemporaries and successors like IsḥÄq al-Mawá¹£ilÄ« (d. 235/850),15 followed significantly later by YaḥyÄ b. Ê¿AlÄ« b. YaḥyÄ Ibn al-Munaǧǧim16 (d. 300/912). In their works on naÄ¡am or anÄ¡Äm (âtones/notesâ), they referred to finger positions on the finger board of the four-stringed lute (see Hagelâs contribution) when demonstrating different musical modes. This approach could also serve as a kind of musical notation, since finger positions and their abǧad designation could be used for tracing pitch. Al-KindÄ« (d. ca. 256/870) even notated a short melody in this way, albeit only for educational purposes. Thus, notation was available, but rarely used. In practice, melodies continued to be transmitted orally.
Although the pear-shaped short-necked lute had apparently originated in Central Asia and spread from there to both East Asia and the entire Islamic Empire, it was only in Islamic lands that it achieved its importance as the paradigmatic instrument for illustrating pitches, intervals, and modes.17 Works on the same kind of lute18 and also other string instruments,19 have come down to us from al-KindÄ«. His writings reflect not only neo-Platonic speculation, but, unlike earlier writings, also Greek musical theory. He was familiar with the contemporary Syriac-Byzantine octÅÄchos as well as Byzantine sources, though not necessarily ancient Greek ones.20 The volume on music in the corpus of the RasÄʾil (âEpistlesâ) by the IḫwÄn aá¹£-á¹¢afÄʾ (fl. in the third/tenth century), is similar to al-KindÄ«âs works in its neo-Platonic aspects,21 as its author borrows mostly from al-KindÄ«âs KitÄb al-Muá¹£awwitÄt al-watariyya (âOn String Instrumentsâ) and RisÄla fÄ« l-Luḥūn wa-n-naÄ¡am (âEpistle on the Modi and the Tones/Notesâ). Some music theory includes extra-musical speculations in which the four strings of the lute are associated with the four humors of the body, the four elements and the four qualities as well as other extra-musical phenomena such as the four seasons or four groups each of three signs of the zodiac.22 The IḫwÄn aá¹£-á¹¢afÄʾ embed such attributions in their cosmology, insofar as harmonious music on earth delights the soul and reminds it of the music of the celestial spheres.23 The Aristotelian al-FÄrÄbÄ« (d. 339/950) could draw on a greater number of Greek and ancient Greek sources than his predecessors, especially Aristoxenus, Nicomachus, and Ptolemy (see Laywineâs contribution). In contrast to al-KindÄ« and the IḫwÄn aá¹£-á¹¢afÄʾ, al-FÄrÄbÄ« rejected associating music with numerical speculation, humoral theory and other matters.24 Ibn SÄ«nÄ25 (d. 428/1037) and his pupil Ibn Zayla26 (d. 440/1048) followed al-FÄrÄbÄ«âs line of thought. In the West, with the establishment of a school of music in al-Andalus by IbrÄhÄ«m al-Mawá¹£ilÄ«âs disciple ZiryÄb (fl. second/ninth century), a musical tradition of its own emerged and spread to North Africa (see Reynoldsâ contribution).
Traditionally, the division of the octave into 17 tones and the systematization of a modal system of twelve maqÄmÄt (sg. maqÄm) and seven ÄwÄzÄt (sg. ÄwÄz) are ascribed to two works of á¹¢afÄ« ad-DÄ«n al-UrmawÄ« (d. 693/1294), the KitÄb al-AdwÄr (âThe Book on Musical Modesâ) and ar-RisÄla aÅ¡-Å¡arafiyya fÄ« n-nisab at-taʾlÄ«fiyya (âThe Sharafian Treatise on Musical Proportionsâ). MaqÄmÄt famously combine specific sets of musical notes (âscalesâ) and the intervals between these with typical melodic usages of the same, while ÄwÄzÄt constitute a kind of auxiliary scales. Al-UrmawÄ«âs reformed system of scales, melodic phrases and modulation techniques aimed at better meeting the practical needs of contemporary musicians. His work formed the basis for many Arab, Persian and Ottoman successors.27 Alongside numerous commentaries on the KitÄb al-AdwÄr from this period onwards, original, practice-related, and doctrinal writings were also produced.28 However, it was not until the nineteenth century that a notation system became generally accepted, when the Armenian musician Hambarjum LimÅnÄean (Turk. Hamparsum Limonciyan, 1768â1839) instigated a development that culminated in notating much important music of the Ottoman Empire29 (see Jägerâs contribution).
In modern times, it is the name of Henry George Farmer (d. 1965) that has come to be most deeply connected with the western study of music in the Islamic world. His works on sources, instruments, and theories from the pre-Islamic times to his contemporaries remain the starting point for research in the field,30 including articles on as diverse topics as organological questions about the form and range of lutes or woodwinds, Arabic, Persian, and Greek music theory, the exchange of musical influences, and military music.31 In more recent times, important studies, editions, and translations by scholars such as Eckhard Neubauer, Amnon Shiloah, and Owen Wright have emulated Farmerâs work in depth and breadth. They have not only made important source material accessible, but have also advanced our understanding of the musical history of the Islamic world far beyond what was possible in Farmerâs time. Finally, Elsbeth and Eckhard Neubauerâs bibliography entitled Arab Music in Western Research has paved the way for further in-depth studies.32
Farmer had already discussed the âArabian musical influenceâ33 on European mediaeval music, exemplifying the circulation of musical ideas in Ancient Greek, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Byzantine, and Latin writings. Since then, other musical sources from various languages have been made available, and individual studies have emerged. When Stephanie Schewe and I organized an international and interdisciplinary conference on âMusical Sources and Theories from Ancient Greece to the Ottoman Period,â our goal was to present current research that not only deals with single musical traditions but highlights points of contact, shared traditions, adaptations, and original developments of music in the Islamic world in addition. This has only been possible by bringing together scholars from such diverse fields as Arabic, Persian, and Ottoman-Turkish Studies, Classical Philology, Musicology, Music Archaeology, and Philosophy, all with their specific traditions and methods. In this special issue, we have not ordered the articles chronologically to better show the interrelationships between musical developments in different regions and times, instruments and subjects of musical theories and practices.
The first contribution introduces the legal implications of music in the Islamic world. In his paper, âMusical Instruments in SamÄÊ¿ Literature: Al- UdfuwÄ«âs KitÄb al-ImtÄÊ¿ bi-aḥkÄm as-samÄÊ¿,â Yaron Klein (Northfield, Minnesota) presents the theological debate on the permissibility of musical instruments in Islam by focusing on percussion instruments, which were considered particularly relevant for social institutions outside of mystical brotherhoods. His textual source is the work of the 14th-century Å ÄfiÊ¿ite scholar al-UdfuwÄ«. Here, âenjoyment of musicâ (á¹arab) played a crucial role for the legal question of when use of percussion instruments was permitted.
Judith I. Haug (Istanbul) brings together many of the aspects addressed during the conference in ââNourishment of the Soulâ â Music, Medicine, and Food in Ottoman Culture.â Using early modern Anatolian sources, she shows how spiritual connections of musical modes (Turk. maḳÄmlar) to the four humors of the body, to the times of day, or to the planets were made fruitful for music therapy. Music was combined with a diet tailored to each patient, resulting in a holistic approach to healing in Anatolian medicine.
Stefan Hagel (Vienna), in âal-ʿŪd, PÃpá, Lute: An Ancient Greek Perspective on Their Prehistory,â traces evidence for the four-stringed short-necked lute with its particular tonal capabilities across Eurasia and potentially back to Classical Greece, considering both al-KindÄ«âs (9th century) and YaḥyÄ b. Ê¿AlÄ« al-Munaǧǧimâs (d. 300/913) diatonic tuning and the attested variants with neutral thirds.
Alison Laywine (McGill, Montreal) addresses the âsecond scholarâ after Aristotle in âal-FÄrÄbÄ«âs Conception of Music Theory as the Universal Science of Melody,â focusing on the role of Greek music theory in al-FÄrÄbÄ«âs Great Book of Music. She identifies the Arabic translation of the pseudo-Euclidian Sectio canonis and Ptolemyâs Harmonics as crucial sources for al-FÄrÄbÄ«âs understanding and conceptionalization of music theory.
Jacob Olley (Cambridge) also touches on cultural interfaces in âMeasuring Progress: The Ottoman Revival of Systematist Music Theory, c. 1900,â in which he explains how, after al-UrmawÄ«âs systematist music theory and its reception continuing into the 16th century, it was not until the late 19th century with Raûf Yektâ that mathematically based music theory gained a foothold in the Ottoman Empire. He also places modern Turkish music theory in the context of pan-Islamic, materialist, and orientalizing theories, analyzing the press of the time.
âThe Musical Modes of al-Andalusâ by Dwight Reynolds (Santa Barbara) studies how elements of the Arab musical tradition traveled west and reached al-Andalus. Using the example of the Tunisian author at-TifÄÅ¡Ä« (7th/13th century) and his tuning of the lute, he presents a link between modal practice in the eastern Mediterranean and al-Andalus.
Finally, Ralf Martin Jäger (Münster), in âNotation Methods and Reference Systems: On the Phenomenon of Cultural Translation in the Eastern Mediterranean,â illustrates the processes of cultural translation in the multiethnic Ottoman Empire by means of notation systems, using the notation of Konstantinos Protopsaltes as an example.
What all these contributions share is a commitment to historical and philological work on original sources, combined with a willingness to explore beyond the disciplinary or area-specific horizons of their fields. We hope that the results of this conference will contribute to a closer integration of current research on the transfer and circulation of ideas within and around the Islamic world, and thus to a better understanding of musical developments across languages and time.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Stefan Hagel, Jacob Olley, Stephanie Schewe, and Leon Wystrychowski for their help with the conference and this volume, and Robert Morrison for his valuable advice and help with this introduction. I am also grateful to the Fritz Thyssen Foundation for supporting the conference, to the editors of Oriens for accepting these papers as a special issue, as well as to the conference participants and especially to those who have contributed to this volume.
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AbÅ« l-Faraǧ al-Iá¹£fahÄnÄ«, KitÄb al-AÄ¡ÄnÄ« (Cairo: DÄr al-kutub al-miá¹£riyya, 1927â74), 3:276.
AbÅ« l-Faraǧ al-Iá¹£fahÄnÄ«, KitÄb al-AÄ¡ÄnÄ«, 3:27â43, 4:219â22. Henry G. Farmer, âṬuways,â in Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, ed. by Peri Bearman a. o. (retrieved June 13, 2023, via http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7658).
Eckhard Neubauer, âDie acht âWegeâ der arabischen Musiklehre und der Oktoechos,â Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften 9 (1994): 374â77, esp. 374â75, with a German translation of the section on Ibn Misǧaḥ in al-Iá¹£fahÄnÄ«, KitÄb al-AÄ¡ÄnÄ«, 3:276.
Cf. the book series Publications of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science: The Science of Music in Islam (Frankfurt am Main: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science, 1997-).
Mohammad Taghi Massoudieh, Manuscrits persans concernant la musique (Munich: Henle, 1996), 138â46, esp. 138. The title of this 13th-century translation was Muǧmal al- ḥikma, s. Eckhard Neubauer, âMusic History ii: ca. 650 to 1370 CE,â in Encyclopædia Iranica, ed. by Ehsan Yarshater (retrieved June 01, 2023, via https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/music-history-ii).
Massoudieh, Manuscrits persans, 135â38 (no: 57).
Fadlou Shehadi, Philosophies of Music in Medieval Islam (Leiden et al.: Brill, 1995).
Cf. Eckhard Neubauer, âArabische Anleitungen zur Musiktherapie,â Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften 6 (1990): 227â72.
In this context, song text collections are very important. Cf. Owen Wright, Words Without Songs: A Musicological Study of an Early Ottoman Anthology and its Precursors (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1992); Hilary Kilpatrick, Making the Great Book of Songs: Compilation and the authorâs craft in Abû l-Faraj al- Iá¹£bahânîâs Kitâb al-aghânî (London, New York: Routledge Curzon, 2003); George D. Sawa, An Arabic Musical and Socio-Cultural Glossary of KitÄb al-AghÄnÄ« (Leiden: Brill, 2015); Yasemin Gökpınar, Höfische Musikkultur im klassischen Islam: Ibn Faá¸lallÄh al-Ê¿UmarÄ« (gest. 749/1349) über die dichterische und musikalische Kunst der Sängersklavinnen (Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2020).
Anders Hammarlund, Tord Olsson, and Elisabeth Ãzdalga, Sufism, Music and Society in Turkey and the Middle East (London: Routledge, 2001).
Charles Pellat, âḲayna,â in Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, ed. by Peri Bearman a. o. (retrieved April 13, 2023, via http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4065).
Eckhard Neubauer, âAl-ḪalÄ«l ibn Aḥmad und die Frühgeschichte der arabischen Lehre von den âTönenâ und den musikalischen Metren: Mit einer Ãbersetzung des KitÄb an-NaÄ¡am von YaḥyÄ ibn Ê¿AlÄ« al-Munaǧǧim,â Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften 10 (1995/96): 275.
Eckhard Neubauer, âAl-ḪalÄ«l ibn Aḥmad und die Frühgeschichte,â 255â323.
Neubauer, âAl-ḪalÄ«l ibn Aḥmad und die Frühgeschichteâ; Owen Wright, âIbn al-Munajjim and the Early Arabian Modes,â The Galpin Society Journal 19 (1966): 27â48.
Daniël Franke and Eckhard Neubauer, Museum des Institutes für Geschichte der arbisch-islamischen Wissenschaften. Beschreibung der Exponate. Teil 1: Musikinstrumente (Frankfurt am Main: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, 2000), 4â5.
Eckhard Neubauer, âDer Bau der Laute und ihre Besaitung nach arabischen, persischen und türkischen Quellen des 9. bis 15. Jahrhunderts,â Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften 8 (1993): 279â378; Gerhard Söhne, âZum Versuch der Rekonstruktion einer frühen arabischen Laute,â Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften 9 (1994): 356â71.
AbÅ« YÅ«suf YaÊ¿qÅ«b b. IsḥÄq al-KindÄ«, RisÄlat al-KindÄ« fÄ« AǧzÄʾ ḫabariyya fÄ« l-mÅ«sÄ«qÄ«, ed. by MaḥmÅ«d Aḥmad al-ḤifnÄ« ([Cairo]: al-Laǧna al-mÅ«sÄ«qiyya al-Ê¿ulyÄ, [1959]); al-KindÄ«, MuʾallafÄt al-KindÄ« al-mÅ«sÄ«qiyya, ed. by ZakariyyÄʾ YÅ«suf (Baghdad: Maá¹baÊ¿at Å afÄ«q, 1962); al-KindÄ«, MÅ«sÄ«qÄ l-KindÄ«: Mulḥaq li-KitÄb MuʾallafÄt al-KindÄ« al-mÅ«sÄ«qiyya, ed. by ZakariyyÄʾ YÅ«suf (Baghdad: Maá¹baÊ¿at Å afÄ«q, 1962); al-KindÄ«, RisÄlat al-KindÄ« fÄ« l-Luḥūn wa-n-naÄ¡am: Mulḥaq ṯÄnin li-KitÄb MuʾallafÄt al-KindÄ« al-mÅ«sÄ«qiyya, ed. by ZakariyyÄʾ YÅ«suf (Baghdad: Maá¹baÊ¿at Å afÄ«q, 1965); Carl Cowl, âThe RisÄla fÄ« Ḫubr taʾlÄ«f al-alḥÄn of JaÊ¿qÅ«b ibn IsḥÄq al-KindÄ« (790â874),â The Consort: Annual Journal of the Dolmetsch Foundation 23 (1966): 129â66; Anas Ghrab, âMuʾallafÄt al-KindÄ« al-mÅ«sÄ«qiyya wa-muÊ¿á¹ayÄt awwaliyya ḥawla Ê¿ilÄqÄtihÄ bi-l-maá¹£Ädir al-iÄ¡rÄ«qiyya [=Les épîtres dâal-KindÄ« sur la musique et premières données sur leur relation avec les textes grecs],â in al-KindÄ« wa-falsafatuhÅ«: AÊ¿mÄl muhdÄt ilÄ Muḥammad al-Miá¹£bÄḥī, ed. by SaÊ¿Ä«d al-BÅ«sklÄwÄ« (Waǧda: Kulliyat al-ÄdÄb wa-l-Ê¿ulÅ«m al-insÄniyya: ǦÄmiÊ¿at Muḥammad al-awwal, 2015), 117â45; Stephanie Schewe, Al-KindÄ« und die Wirkung der Musik: Sein Buch der Chordophone von den einsaitigen bis zu den zehnsaitigen (KitÄb al-muá¹£awwitÄt al-watariyya min á¸Ät al-watar al-wÄḥid ilÄ á¸Ät al-âaÅ¡arat al-autÄr) in deutscher Ãbersetzung (Frankfurt am Main: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, 2018).
Neubauer, âDie acht âWegeâ,â 381â82.
Amnon Shiloah, The Epistle on Music of the Ikhwan al-Safa: (Bagdad, 10th century) (Tel-Aviv: Tel-Aviv University, 1978); IḫwÄn aá¹£-á¹¢afÄʾ, ar-RisÄla al-ḫÄmisa fÄ« l-mÅ«sÄ«qÄ«, ed. and trans. by Owen Wright under the title On Music: An Arabic Critical Edition and English Translation of Epistle 5, Epistles of the Brethren of Purity (Oxford: University Press, 2010).
Schewe, Al-KindÄ« und die Wirkung der Musik, esp. 281â300; IḫwÄn aá¹£-á¹¢afÄʾ, ar-RisÄla al-ḫÄmisa fÄ« l-mÅ«sÄ«qÄ«, ed. and trans. by Owen Wright under the title On Music, 15â20; translation 155â58; edition 151â60.
IḫwÄn aá¹£-á¹¢afÄʾ, ar-RisÄla al-ḫÄmisa fÄ« l-mÅ«sÄ«qÄ«, ed. and trans. by Owen Wright under the title On Music, translation 117â18; edition 73â74.
Al-FÄrÄbÄ«, KitÄb al-MÅ«sÄ«qÄ« al-kabÄ«r, ed. by Ä aá¹á¹Äs Ê¿Abd al-Malik ḪaÅ¡aba and MaḥmÅ«d Aḥmad al-ḤifnÄ« (Cairo: DÄr al-kÄtib al-Ê¿arabÄ« li-á¹-á¹ibÄÊ¿a wa-n-naÅ¡r, 1967); AdÄ«b NÄyif á¸iyÄb, Naáºariyyat al-FÄrÄbÄ« fÄ« l-mÅ«sÄ«qÄ (Baghdad: ManÅ¡Å«rÄt wizÄrat al-aÊ¿lÄm, 1975); George D. Sawa, Music Performance Practice in the Early Ê¿AbbÄsid Era 132â320 AH/750â932 AD (Ottawa: Institute of Mediaeval Music, 2004); George D. Sawa, Rhythmic Theories and Practices in Arabic Writings to 339 AH/950 CE: Annotated Translations and Commentaries (Ottawa: Institute of Mediaeval Music, 2009).
Roni Granot and Nabil Shair, âThe Origin and Power of Music According to the 11th-Century Islamic Philosopher Ibn SÄ«nÄ,â JRAS 29, no. 4 (2019): 585â98.
Ibn Zayla, al-KitÄb al-KÄfÄ« fÄ« l-mÅ«sÄ«qÄ«, ed. by ZakariyyÄʾ YÅ«suf (Cairo: DÄr al-qalam, 1964).
Eckhard Neubauer, âá¹¢afÄ« al-DÄ«n al-UrmawÄ«,â in Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, ed. by Peri Bearman a. o. (retrieved April 10, 2023, via http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6447); cf. Anas Ghrab, âCommentaire anonyme du KitÄb Al-AdwÄr: édition critique, traduction et présentation des lectures arabes de lâÅuvre de á¹¢afÄ« Al-DÄ«n al- UrmawÄ«â (PhD thesis, Sorbonne University, Paris, 2009).
For theoretical works on the music of Arabs under Ottoman rule, see Salah Eddin Maraqa, Die traditionelle Kunstmusik in Syrien und Ãgypten von 1500 bis 1800 (Tutzing: Schneider, 2015).
Jacob Olley, Codex TR-Iüne 203â1: PeÅrevs and Saz Semâîsis Notated by Hampartsum Limonciyan (1768â1839): Transcription and Commentary, 2 vols., Corpus Musicae Ottomanicae (Münster, 2020), online resource (retrieved April 10, 2023, via https://www.academia.edu/66928821/Olley_Jacob_ed_PeÅrevs_and_saz_semaisis_notated_by_Hampartsum_Limonciyan_1768_1839_vol_2_Commentary); cf. the long-term project Corpus Musicae Ottomanicae, Münster (PI: Ralf Martin Jäger), with âcritical editions of Oriental music manuscripts,â https://www.uni-muenster.de/CMO-Edition/cmo/cmo.html (accessed April 10, 2023). Earlier notation systems referred to the fingers and frets of the lute or to syllables expressing rhythm. These systems were exact but rarely used, cf. George Dimitri Sawa, âÊ¿Abbasid music,â in Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, ed. by Kate Fleet a. o. (retrieved May 03, 2023, via http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23815).
Eckhard and Elsbeth Neubauer, âHenry George Farmer on Oriental Music: An Annotated Bibliography,â Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften 4 (1987/ 88): 219â66.
Henry George Farmer, Studies in Oriental Music, ed. by. Eckhard Neubauer, 2 vols. (Frankfurt am Main: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, 1986).
Elsbeth Neubauer, comp., and Eckhard Neubauer, ed., Arab Music in Western Research: A Bibliography of Books and Articles Written in Western Languages on the Music of the Arab Countries, 4 vols. (Frankfurt am Main: Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, 2012â21).
Henry G. Farmer, Historical Facts for the Arabian Musical Influence (London: Reeves, [1930]).
