1 Introduction
Language or languages are an important part of any culture. Through our languages we communicate and build a sense of relationship to our communities. According to the Salzburg Statement (2018), all 193 United Nations (UN) member states and most people living in them are multilingual. Around 7100 languages are spoken across the world, and around 2500 of these are endangered. Therefore, millions of people around the globe are denied their inherent right to maintain, enjoy and develop their language of identity and sense of community. From these premises, societies need policies and practices that support language and culture learning, and maintenance of them, which will also contribute to social cohesion. Creating culturally and linguistically inclusive and safe learning spaces for Indigenous learners are of importance for Indigenous communities. According to Kevin Brown (2019), safe learning spaces can be inviting for Indigenous people and their philosophy. Students can come to these spaces, as they are, and they can cultivate their own growth. In these type of spaces, Indigenous learners can manifest their cultural practices of learning and construct and Indigenous community. Language is also learned in these spaces. Therefore, culturally, and linguistically, safe learning spaces are one answer to these societal needs (Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2022a, 2022b).
From these premises a theoretical framework for this paper was created. The framework of this paper consists of research connected with culture and language, but also with the Indigenous history of Norway. Therefore, an underlying framework for this paper is the linguistic and cultural exclusion of Sami languages in Norway throughout its history. According to Olga Shchukina et al. (2019, p. 192), Norwegian legislation provides the largest degree of self-government and the possibility of enjoying cultural rights, including teaching
The South Sami is the southernmost population, frequently described as a minority within the minority (Hermanstrand et al., 2019). This study has been conducted in a small rural Indigenous preschool and school centre in Norway, in the southernmost part of Saepmie. The estimation of South Sami speakers in Norway is around 300 (Ethnologue database, 2020), making the language severely endangered (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], n.d.; Cocq, 2012). The extinction of it can be fought with the help of language revitalisation. Therefore, this study has been conducted in an educational space that is the last frontier, fighting for the cultural and linguistic existence of the South Sami Indigenous population. In this educational space, we wanted to take a closer look at how teachers in both preschool and primary school describe the South Sami language learning environment in their ECE working context. More specifically, the research question for this study was, how do teachers describe their language revitalising actions in educational practices? The data was collected with the help of semi-structured interviews during the autumn of 2019, with three preschool teachers and three primary school teachers, and analysed with the help of content analysis. content analysis.
The theoretical frame for this paper is divided into two parts. In the first part we describe the Indigenous Sami context of Norway, to give readers an understanding of the historic context. We will also give readers an understanding of the educational policies of todayâs Norway. Then, we move on to describing what language revitalisation is, and what type of pedagogical practices support language maintenance and learning. After that, the data and methods are introduced, as well as the findings. We will conclude this paper with a discussion on language revitalisation through the lens of teachersâ practices in the South Sami ECEC and primary school language learning environments.
2
The Sami people are the Indigenous people that inhabit areas of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Northwest Russia. There are altogether nine Sami languages spoken today. Thus, the Sami should be considered as one people or nation sharing common cultural, historical, and linguistic roots (Hermanstrand et al., 2019). During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Sami population of Norway were subject to extensive assimilation policy, which is referred to as Norwegianisation policy. The main aim was to initiate a language and cultural shift among the Sami, making them fully Norwegian in terms of language, culture, and customs. This policy was primarily conducted through the school system. For instance, Sami children were enrolled in boarding schools, where speaking Sami was restrained (Niemi, 2017). This Norwegianisation policy was abolished by the early 1960s, but the effects are long-lasting. In many cases the language was not passed on to the next generation (Minde, 2003), creating linguistic barriers between the generations. The government of Norway has made efforts to revitalise the Sami languages of Norway. However today, only around 30% of the Sami speak Sami (based on figures in the Ethnologue database, 2020; cf. Vangsnes, 2018). This language situation poses specific educational challenges (Albury, 2016; Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2022a, 2022b; Keskitalo et al., 2012). The children need to learn their heritage language and culture. One challenge in all this is the lack of qualified teachers speaking Sami. In primary and secondary education, this is partly solved through various forms of distance education. Another challenge is that there are only a few public arenas for the children to practice and to speak the Sami language in natural situations (Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2022b). Other challenges are connected to adequate teaching material but also, according to Pigga Keskitalo et al. (2012), is the need to develop an education paradigm that aligns with the requirements of the Sami community. There is a need (Keskitalo et al., 2012, p. 59) to transform the Sami communityâs own culture and tradition, its values, stories, expectations, norms, roles, ceremonies, and rituals into school knowledge which would improve multiculturalism and the inclusion of Sami culture in schools, where a Sami curriculum would be utilised. The same would also be the case for the early childhood education context (Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2022b).
ensure that the pupils receive education and training based on Sami values and the Sami languages, culture, and societal life. The values in the objectives clause are also Sami values and apply in the Sami school. It is important to have a holistic Sami perspective and an Indigenous peopleâs perspective in the Sami school, and to focus on material and immaterial cultural heritage, such as traditional knowledge, duodji/duodje/duedtie and the importance of familial relations. (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017, p. 4)
During the early years, the Norwegian Framework Plan for the Content and Task of Kindergartens (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017) highlighted the special position of minorities with an official status. According to this plan and the Kindergarten Act (2005), âSami kindergartens shall promote the childrenâs Sami language skills, strengthen their Sami identity, and promote Sami valuesâ. In these kindergartens/preschools, Sami is the main language of instruction. However, these documents do not elaborate on what Sami culture is, or what traditional learning and working methods are. Therefore, the Sami preschools and schools might interpret it differently, even if the Framework Plan for the Content and Task of Kindergartens (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017, p. 25) states that Sami kindergarten children shall be supported in preserving and developing their language, their knowledge and their culture, irrespective of where in Norway they live.
3 Language Revitalisation in the Sami Context
In this chapter, the study presented has been conducted in the South Sami preschool, called Suaja maanagierte, and the South Sami primary school called Aarjel-saemiej skuvle. They are both situated in the same building. This is the only learning space in the world dedicated primarily to teaching South Sami language and culture from childhood to adulthood. The school was established in 1968 after the Gaske-Nøørjen Saemienskovle in Hattfjelldal that had been the only one to provide education in South Sami since 1951. Today this so-called Southe Sami resource center offers distance education and language workshops
At the societal level, language revitalisation is connected to national and international legislation and cultural policy. Whereas at the individual level, language revitalisation is affected by attitudes, cultural heritage, and circumstances in which the speakers of the language live.
Teachers are the fighters at the forefront of the revitalisation work across the Sami area. The language and culture-supporting practices teachers use are of great importance. For instance, Marikaisa Laiti (2018) has studied closer teaching practices and contents of Sami ECEC. These were specifically related to the development and maintenance of the relationship with nature, culture, and language. In these contexts, children were provided with various opportunities to practice elements of Sami culture such as doing handicrafts, using fire, fishing, and picking berries. ECEC followed or imitated cultural activities, even when children were not able to experience authentic Sami activities. The most important factor for reversing the language shift in Inari Sami was creating language nests, where Sami was the medium of school instruction, and where intensive language education had been given to adults as well (Pasanen, 2015). Ãärelä (2016) describes an ECEC language nest as a space where regular education is provided, but where children can learn about the Sami language and culture as well. Pedagogical practices regarding childrenâs language in language nests are close to language immersion practices (Ãärelä, 2016; cf. Harju-Luukkainen, 2007). In language immersion, like in language nest programmes, teachers use a variety of instructional practices to support childrenâs language acquisition, as well as to scaffold their understanding (Baker, 2011; Bergroth & Björklund, 2013; GarcÃa, 2009; Snow, 1990; Harju-Luukkainen, 2007; Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2019). Harju-Luukkainen (2007, p. 139) has developed a model on the different instructional practices for immersion contexts. This model is based on a review of both national and international literature. According to Harju-Luukkainen (2007), a leading idea in immersion education is to incorporate a high language intensity, use a wide variety of language-rich teaching materials, and versatile pedagogical activities (for example, playful learning, drama, technology, and music-supported learning), where the instruction is done through the medium of the immersion language (cf. Baker, 2011; Harju-Luukkainen, 2007). The teacherâs task is to ensure that the language is introduced and used in various situations, as well as on a linguistically appropriate level for the children. A variety of language learning opportunities should be provided, including songs and stories embedded in
Parental collaboration is also of importance when children are learning a language. According to Harju-Luukkainen et al. (2022a), teachers in the South Sami context, described the context for their parentâteacher collaboration from three larger frames of reference. These frames highlight the promotion of childrenâs Sami language skills, strengthen their Sami identity, and promote Sami values. These three frames shared cultural understanding, goals, and the responsibility among teachers and parents. According to Harju-Luukkainen et al. (2022a), preschool teachers in Indigenous settings can, with their ways of working with parents, create an open arena for children and families to learn the Indigenous language. In these arenas the language nests provide a tool to organise the education for both children and parents, as well as for others living in the community (cf. Ãärelä, 2016; Pasanen, 2015).
4 Data and Methods
This research was conducted as a part of a research project called âHow to support language learners in the South Sami language?â It was a study of teachersâ competence in instructional practices and was funded by the Regional Research Fund (Regionale forskningsfond, RFF Trøndelag), Norway. Furthermore, this study was conducted in Norway in a South Sami preschool. In total, three teachers from this preschool and three teachers from the primary school were interviewed during the autumn of 2019, with the help of semi-structured interviews. These interviews were between 57 to 66 minutes in length. The questions were connected to the teachersâ practices connected to language teaching, focusing on the following themes: strategies used in language learning, verbal, visual and non-verbal; challenges in South Sami language learning; and priorities in language learning. The entire textual data was analysed with the help of content analysis. According to Robert Weber (1990), content analysis may address language, content meaning, techniques of communication, specific events, or all these simultaneously. In this study, the focus of the content analysis was the textual data developed from the interviews. According to Judy H. Gray and Iain L. Densten (1998), content analysis examines patterns and structures from textual data and selects key features that researchers want
Since this study was conducted in a South Sami context and the researchers did not speak the language, all interviews were conducted in Norwegian. However, it is important to note that the teachers in the preschool considered themselves bilingual, and hence were fluent Norwegian speakers. The transcribed interviews were then translated into English.
As regards ethical considerations, this study adheres to the international and national guidelines for research ethics, including those set by the National Committee for Research Ethics (2022), with special considerations to research with Indigenous people. The research team has provided its participants with adequate information about the field of research at the beginning of the study; the purpose of the research; who will receive access to the information; the intended use of the results; and the consequences of the research project. The research team also respected participantsâ autonomy, integrity, freedom and right for co-determination. The participants could choose if they wanted to participate in the study, and they were able to determine their participation at any time. The data has been processed in such a way that personal matters and information were kept confidential (cf. Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2022a, 2022b).
5 Results
In this study our main question was how do teachers describe their language revitalising actions in educational practices? Therefore, in this section we will describe in detail how teachers in ECEC, and the school context described the South Sami language and learning environment, from a language-supportive instructional perspective. From our textual data codes were created, and then thematically sorted into four main categories, that were as following:
Language immersion approach in teaching
Multimodal approach on language learning in various spaces
Playful language learning practices Teachers as role models for language learning.
5.1 Language Immersion Approach in Teaching
You just need to shower them in the Sami language. The children who come here are bathed in the language every day, that is just fantastic.
Preferably no Norwegian.
It is incredible how much they understand if you just speak to them in this one language over time.
We try to bath them (in the South Sami language) but sometimes it is more like a light shower.
In summary, the teachers described that they understood the meaning of language immersion practices, speaking the Indigenous language to the children all the time, and that the majority language, Norwegian, should not be used, but this was not necessarily easy to fulfill at times, due to teacherâs own lack of language knowledge.
5.2 Multimodal Approach on Language Learning in Varying Spaces
It is important to be active and to choose different activities ⦠Itâs all about learning by doing.
We use all the senses (when teaching the language), listening, seeing, tasting, and smelling ⦠and of course, movements.
I use my body language a lot ⦠it is important that they (the children) can watch my mimicry which makes the language more vivid.
That we have tools like âBravoâ, which is really specific, helps the children put meanings to the words.
We use concretisation a lot, say the words, show the picture or object.
Showing the children, the object, then saying the word over and over again, thatâs a way I like to work.
Mealtimes are good learning environments, as all the children and all the adults are present at the same time.
In summary, the teachers described different ways to use the body, their senses, and to learn by doing, together with the children. They approach the activities from multiple language supportive perspectives to teach and to enhance the language learning in different situations. Furthermore, the teachers also used multiple oral and visual practices, as well as multiple learning arenas, taking advantage of the daily routines.
5.3 Playful Language Learning Practices
We need to focus on how to get the children to speak South Sami when they play. Several of the children speak mostly Norwegian (when playing) ⦠it is important that we as adults participate actively to facilitate more South Sami language in play situations.
It helps that we have several children now who have South Sami as their mother tongue, they are good role models when the children are playing.
In summary, the teachers described childrenâs play as an important forum to learn the South Sami language. They saw themselves as important language facilitators that could support children in their language learning during play, but where peer support had an important role as well.
5.4 Teachers as Role Models for Language Learning
It is important that we, as adults, speak South Sami, when we talk together, that way the children learn that this is an important language and we canât tell the children to speak South Sami if we donât use it when we communicate.
We (as adults) need to show the children that this is a language that is alive.
If the children speak to me in Norwegian, I sometimes am a bit tricky and answer them in South Sami ⦠my experience is that they immediately switch to South Sami.
What we can do is be a good role model (and speak South Sami), because we cannot force them (to speak South Sami).
In summary, the teachers described their role, as language role models of South Sami, as crucially important, and that their attitude towards the South Sami language was of importance and transferred to the children as well.
6 Discussion
This study has been conducted in an educational space that is the last frontier, fighting for the cultural and linguistic existence of the South Sami Indigenous population. Our research question was, how do teachers (in ECE and the school context) describe their language revitalising actions in their educational practice? The data was collected with the help of semi-structured interviews during the autumn of 2019, with three preschool teachers and three primary school teachers, and analysed with the help of content analysis. According to Erika Sarivaara et al. (2013, p. 14), the revitalisation process is connected to the national and international legislation and policy. At the individual level, language revitalisation is affected by the attitudes, cultural heritage, and circumstances in
According to the results of this study, the teachers described language supportive practices from four main categories. These were (1) Language immersion approach in teaching, (2) Multimodal approach on language learning in various spaces, (3) Playful language learning practices, and (4) Teachers as role models for language learning. In language immersion, language nest programmes as well as in the educational context of South Sami, teachers use a variety of instructional multimodal practices (visual, sensory, different learning spaces etc.) to support childrenâs language acquisition as well as to scaffold their understanding (Baker, 2011; Bergroth & Björklund, 2013; GarcÃa, 2009; Harju-Luukkainen, 2007; Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2019; Laurén, 2000; Snow, 1990). According to Laiti (2018), typical practices and contents of Sami ECEC are related to the development and maintenance of the relationship with nature, culture, and language. In these, children are provided with various opportunities to practise elements of Sami culture such as doing handicrafts, using fire, fishing, and picking berries. All of these were evident in the teachersâ practices in the South Sami context as well.
The teachers of this study talked about their use of a multimodal approach, just like in the language immersion setting, to develop the childrenâs South Sami language competency. Even though all the teachers didnât use the same practices, they agreed on the use of a multimodal approach, and that this involved activities for both the children and the teachers. The teachers also used the advantage of everyday arenas for language learning, like nature and mealtime activities. These arenas have been noted as very important learning spaces in South Sami settings previously (Ãärelä, 2016; Laiti, 2018; Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2022a, 2022b). Play-based learning was also popular among the teachers and learning the language through play was described as an essential element in their teaching practices. According to Merrill Swain and Sharon Lapkin (2000; cf. Harju-Luukkainen, 2007), the teacherâs task is to ensure that the language is introduced and used in various situations, as well as on a linguistically appropriate level for the children.
A variety of language learning opportunities should be provided, including several songs and stories embedded in the daily routines. The teachers of this study also used a lot of repetition to support the language learning of the children. According to Harju-Luukkainen (2007), a leading idea in immersion education is to incorporate a high language intensity, use a wide variety
According to the results, the entire South Sami educational context was seen as an important and inclusive language and culture revitalising space. Revitalisation of a language does not happen on its own. It is the systematic and goal-oriented work of society, as well as of the teachers in the school context, including parents (Pasanen, 2015; Harju-Luukkainen et al., 2022b). This interview-based study gave only a snapshot of those language revitalising pedagogical practices teachers identify using on a regular basis. To get a deeper understanding of these practices, a larger study would be needed. This would be important, since we know that childrenâs language can be resumed and reclaimed with the help of education. Therefore, there is an urgent need for more research on Indigenous pedagogy, especially from the South Sami context.
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