1 Introduction
This chapter explores and describes a locally emerging field of study and practice, that is, the processes of writing and teaching writing in the Sami language, which both belong to the realm of literacy studies. In Sápmi, literacy and writing have been less researched than other areas of study, although they are closely connected to many important areas of meaning-making, society building, Indigenous citizenship and school success, and in the majority contexts often motivate a growing and influential body of research. In the Sami context, the research in this field is steadily growing, but has yet to receive more attention, to be able to inform present and future educational practices.
What is Sami literacy and writing research in the beginning of 2020?
What are the next important steps in this field?
The chapter is organised as follows. Following this short introduction, the second section narrates the background and context for the emerging field of Sami language didactics in which literacy and writing research reside. Observe that second section does not attempt to function as a background for Sami education in general, but focuses on the relationship between Sami language, literacy, and didactics as they are perceived and manifested in the higher Sami educational structures. The focus of section two is on higher education, because it has visible structures such as steering and vision documents, course plans and course offerings, while the relationship between Sami language didactics, literacy, and the regular school sector is at present hidden in the practices of less researched classrooms.
After the context section, Section 3 offers a rather compressed background to how writing and learning and teaching writing in general are viewed in research and by the practitioners. Section 3 underlines the fact that the literacy studies that have been done in Sápmi so far have had a specific focus on the learning-to-write approaches, and that one of the possible ways to move the field forward is to extend the scope of studies to include also writing-to-learn approaches. Section 4 describes the present developments in Sami literacy research and provides the reader with examples of the latest research projects and their results. According to this section, there is an ideological, practical, and policy-based imbalance between languages in Sápmi that benefits writing and writing instruction in majority languages and is often disadvantageous for the Indigenous heritage language. Section 5 describes a few examples of interesting community initiatives that offer us clues as to where positive advancement is taking place in the Sami literacy development, and what some of the natural next steps in research can be. Section 6 offers final thoughts and an attempt to summarise the answers to the questions asked in this section.
2
From the beginning, in the Sami higher education context, there has been a very clear-cut separation of Sami linguistics and pedagogy in the teacher training programmes, comprising of a remaining and enduring didactic gap between the two fields. A remnant of this separation is still visible at most Sami higher education institutions. At the Sami University of Applied Sciences, the organisation is still based on the division between the department of teacher education and the department of language, handicrafts, and society. However, a partial overlap between teacher education and linguistics is evident in the actual course offerings. A similar clear-cut separation between Sami linguistics, Sami literature, and, for instance, Sami culture and history repeats itself in the course offerings of Sami related contents at all the Nordic universities that offer such courses. For example, in Umeå and in Oulu, the degree programmes have been divided between language studies and history/culture.
According to the course plans, the main goals of most of the Sami language, literature, and societal courses are connected to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and, in some cases, values and worldviews. The implementation and mediation of the acquired knowledge and skills are seldom mentioned. Students who are enrolled in the teacher training programmes may feel that the opposite is true of their education, where implementation and mediation are expected but not always supported. They may also feel that there is too little time or space within the programme to strengthen the linguistic and cultural knowledge base that may be partially missing due to issues connected to the challenges experienced in heritage language environments.
Based on the last 10 years of research done within Sami literacy development and didactics (cf. Lindgren et al., 2016; Outakoski, 2014, 2015a, 2021; Pietikäinen & Pitkänen-Huhta, 2013; Sullivan et al., 2019), I further suggest that the models for why and how literacy instruction should be done in Sápmi are still today influenced by models that do not support Sami literacy development. The reflections of these influences are materialised, among other things, in official steering documents (BelanÄiÄ & Lindgren, 2020), in hierarchical language attitudes (Hornberger & Outakoski, 2015), and in writing practices in and out of school contexts (BelanÄiÄ et al., 2017; Outakoski, 2015b).
In the Nordic universities where Sami languages can be studied as a part of a national teacher training programme, the language subject and the didactics are separated in such a manner that the Sami teacher students follow language didactic courses designed for the respective countryâs majority language or for second language learning and not for Sami languages. Some universities offer optional courses in Sami language didactics in addition to language didactics
Thus, although the Sami language was already taught at higher education institutions during the 1700s (Statens forvaltningstjeneste, 2000), it is not before now, at the beginning of 2020s, that the Sami higher education institutions open new positions for staff within Sami language didactics. The processes of opening, describing, and filling these positions lead to the exploration of something new within Sami and Indigenous didactics. Whereas access to Sami languages and writing skills initially equalled access to the Christian mission transferring and power controlling medium, the role of Sami language teaching in higher education today is clearly directed toward language communitiesâ internal educational needs.
There is finally room for discussions on what, why, and how we should teach when we are preparing teacher students to teach Sami languages. These discussions are supported by the ongoing pedagogical research that is done within the Sami educational sector, and those discussions are also supported by the solid groundwork laid down by Sami linguists and language teachers. Contextualised pedagogical models and principles can now be combined with studentsâ and teachersâ linguistic knowledge to support and mediate the understanding of why and how we should be learning and teaching Sami language and literacy, and not only focus on what should be learned.
Now that Sami writing instruction is taking form within the emerging Sami language didactics, it is important to situate the new field within the writing research tradition. In the next section, two main approaches to research within writing and writing instruction are discussed, and one of the approaches is found to be more established in the Sami context than the other, providing us with new clues of how to develop this field in the future.
3 Approaches to Learning and Teaching Writing
Writing is a complex research subject, comprised of, for example, different aspects and perspectives on the writer, the text, the reader, the context(s), resources, pedagogy, and didactics of writing instruction. Challenges and opportunities for development in this field are, to a large extent, defined by
Within research on learning and teaching writing, there has traditionally been two theoretical and pedagogical perspectives that divide the interests of the researchers. These two theoretical research traditions tend to focus either on the ways we learn and teach writing (Learn-to-write approaches), or on how writing facilitates and aids learning (Write-to-learn approaches). For further reading and references, see Roz IvaniÄ (2004) for a thorough introduction of the discourses and contexts, or for learning and teaching writing; Bazerman et al. (2005, pp. 57â65) for an overview of the âwrite to learn approachâ; and the edited volume by Rosa M. Manchón (2011) for extended discussions on the interplay between the two perspectives in the context of learning additional languages.
When seen from the language didactic point of view, both theoretical orientations that have been mentioned here are important and not in contradiction with each other. However, this division of interest can be good to remember when we read and interpret studies and research results coming from the writing research field, since the division has the potential to shape language didactic models in different directions â the first focusing on what, how, and why we write, and the second focusing on the role of writing as thought shaper and interpreter of the âinner speechâ (Vygotsky, 1986, p. 149). In the Sami context, the former focus has been preferred so far and very little is known about Sami writing as a means of learning. This is certainly one of the emerging and new areas of inquiry that needs to be strengthened, broadened, and has the potential to move Sami literacy research forward.
Apart from these two main research pedagogical approaches to writing, the educational sector, schools, teachers, and principals may approach writing as a necessity, described in steering documents, and seen as an inseparable part of a top-down design of the schooling system. Further, if the teachers lack the didactic and pedagogical tool kit for writing instruction, and/or are unknowing of the different pedagogical approaches to writing, there is a risk that writing instruction is reduced to a list of contents and boxes that need
4 Literacy Research in Sápmi
Literacy as a research subject is a rather new addition to the Sami research tradition, although writing and its features as part of the literary tradition in Sápmi have long been a popular research subject within, for example, literature studies (Ahvenjärvi, 2017; Fredriksen, 2015, 2021; Gaski, 1987; Hirvonen, 2008; Mattila, 2011). Globally, literacy is closely connected to different national contexts of school research and pedagogical and didactic studies and has a much longer history than in the Sami context. In other Indigenous contexts, literacy studies are also often connected to the bi- and multilingual contexts in which most Indigenous peoples find themselves today, and that shape their writing practices (de la Piedra, 2006; Gort, 2008; Hare, 2012; Hopewell & Escamilla, 2014; Hornberger, 2003; Mendes, 2006).
Literacy studies that focus on reading in Sami languages are very few and reflect the threatened state of Sami languages in a society where other languages are constantly present, and often dominate the literary landscape of Sami pupils. In a book that is based on her doctoral thesis, Jorun Høier (2007) focuses on reading and literacy in a bilingual Sami context. Her main finding is that bilingual Sami pupils develop better understandings of texts written in Norwegian, the majority language, than in Sami. Høierâs study differs from most other studies within the Sami literacy research field, as it looks at reading using the reading-to-learn approach. In the master study that focused on reading habits among bilingual Sami speaking upper secondary students, Nina Ãdegaard (2020) found that keen readers prefer reading in the original
Literacy studies that focus on the processes and teaching context of Sami writing have so far been concentrated in Umeå, Sweden, but since 2019 we are seeing an increase in Master-level investigations that study writing and Sami language didactics on the Norwegian side of Sápmi (cf. Eira Heahttá, 2020; Hætta Klemetsen, 2019; Pettersen, 2019). Also, a group of researchers at the University of Jyväskylä in Finland, led by Professor Sari Pietikäinen, has engaged in studying Sami languages and writing through the complex discourses of multilingualism and multimodality (Pietikäinen, 2012; Pietikäinen & Pitkänen-Huhta, 2013, 2014).
The following three subsections will present recent, ongoing, and planned literacy research projects that focus on writing, literacy, and writing instruction in the Sami educational context. The base for these studies is in Sweden.
4.1 Multilingual Writers and Their Complex Context
The three-year research project, Literacy in Sápmi, was funded by the Swedish Research Council (project ID 2011-06153) during the years 2012â2014. The project investigated the context of literacy development for North Sami learners between the ages of 9 and 18, and examined their writing development in the three languages that the pupils were learning in parallel in school: North Sami, the national majority language, and English.
The data in this trans-Nordic project was collected from 12 school districts in Sweden, Norway, and Finland, and consisted of stories and texts written by multilingual Sami learners; survey data from the pupils, their parents, teachers, and school leaders; interviews with teachers and principals; and observational data from the writing sessions. The texts were collected with the help of a keystroke logging programme that was also used for the technical analysis of the texts considering such matters as fluency, length, duration. The texts, the observations, survey summaries, and the interviews were analysed using methods from discourse and text analysis. Some of the pupil texts were also analysed, using text analysis tools from the tradition of systemic functional linguistics (SFL) (Lindgren et al., 2017). A more detailed description of the methodology is provided in Outakoski et al. (2019).
The main findings of this project highlighted the complexity of the multilingual context in which Sami learners grow up. The results showed that the scales on the continua of biliteracy (Hornberger & Skilton-Sylvester, 2000) could be very different, depending on where and how the learners were brought up and
An ideological space with the knowledge to adapt to new times and as an implementational space that can be an island of language revitalization while families and communities are facing pressures on Sámi language use. (Hornberger & Outakoski, 2015, p. 43)
Thoughts and attitudes toward Sami literacy vary a lot between countries, regions, and even locally between schools, which reflects the complexity of this educational context (Outakoski, 2015a).
This study is rather exceptional in the context of Sami literacy research and writing research, as it is the only large-scale transnational, empirical, and experimental study that has been carried out in Sápmi so far. Studies of this kind require a thorough ethical approval process as they are carried out in the school environment and gather information and materials that are connected to an ethnic minority group represented by both minors and adults. Such studies also require much more time and resources than usual Master or PhD projects. Requirements for the project staff are also very high as multilingual, multicultural, and social competence is needed of those who will be visiting the schools. All this said, development and new projects are needed in the empirical and experimental area of Sami writing research, and one way of promoting such projects is to scale them down to suit smaller projects from Bachelor and Master levels upwards.
4.2 Opening and Closing Spaces for Sami Language Use
At the policy level, access to knowledge in and about Sami and to support functional bilingualism opens spaces for Sami language use. Whereas the unbalanced access to Sami and Swedish knowledge, fewer Sami teaching hours, and no national tests in Sami close spaces for Sami language use. At the grassroots level, teachers identified the combination of place and play as a facilitator for Sami language use, with the potential to open spaces for language use that support pupilsâ willingness to use Sami. For pupils, positive attitudes towards Sami are connected with open spaces for Sami language use, whereas negative attitudes towards Sami are connected with few opportunities to use Sami resulting in closed spaces for Sami language use. (BelanÄiÄ, 2020, p. IV)
The SNC [the Sami National Curriculum] does not offer equal opportunities for pupils to develop Sami and Swedish languages. Thereby, it does not give them the full opportunity to participate as democratic citizens in all aspects of Sami and Swedish society, nor to develop their identities as multilingual, multicultural and Indigenous individuals.
What the opportunities for Sami language development, literacy attainment, and improved bilingual proficiency are in the rest of Sápmi and surrounding areas is yet to be studied. Studies of language curricula, literacy goals in steering documents, and several other literacy and writing-related questions offer ways to broaden the field beyond texts and language studies.
4.3 Collaborative Research Creates Didactic Models for Sami Literacy
The studies presented in Sections 4.1 and 4.2 have provided Sami literacy researchers with valuable knowledge about writing processes, the contexts of writing, and the use of language in Sami schools. Both projects have also
One of the projects investigated the ways teaching supports writing in a multilingual heritage language context at one Sami school and in Sami teacher training and language programmes at higher education institutions in Sweden, Norway and Finland. This International Post-Doctoral project was funded by the Swedish Research Council (project ID 2017-00474) and was supported by Umeå School of Education. Among other things, this project has resulted in a methodological comparison of two Sami literacy studies that will hopefully inform future practices in the field of Indigenous literacy research. The main contribution of that study is that it acknowledges Indigenous research principles as a valuable source of ethical and methodological support for researchers who work in different literacy settings both inside and outside of Indigenous contexts (Outakoski, 2021).
Another project is an ongoing collaboration with OISE [Ontario Institute for Studies in Education] at the University of Toronto. It investigates the role of play and games in learning Indigenous languages and is divided into several different case studies that take place in Canada, Sweden, and New Zealand. The Swedish case had a postdoctoral fellow working with the Sami teachers for the initial 2-year period and has later received a three-year research grant from the Umeå School of Education, which will keep the project going until December 2024.
A third project, which is funded by the Swedish Institute for Educational Research (project ID 2021-00041), began in 2022, and focuses on literacy practices in multilingual pre-schools and school classes in Sweden. The translated title of the project is âMother tongue, minorities, and linguistic heterogeneity: Teaching practices in pre-school and school with the focus on literacyâ.
These three projects are expected to inform future teaching practices and didactics within the field of Sami literacy and Sami writing instruction. The research methodologies of these projects also embrace the knowledge of the in-service teachers, that are seen as important research partners and designers of the future Sami language didactics.
5
Besides the Sami literacy learning and teaching efforts that are mobilised in pre-schools, in compulsory education, upper secondary education, and at higher education programmes, we also see several community initiatives that support literacy in a non-formal and naturalistic way. Although the outcomes and impacts of these community writing arenas have yet not been systematically investigated, their effects on writing in Sami should not be underestimated.
Below, I describe a couple of such community arenas or initiatives for writing, but these are in no way representative of all micro and macro initiatives that take place in public and in the Sami homes. The selection of the following three examples is made based on their usability in connection to, and as a complement to, writing and writing instruction in schools. These also exemplify new and interesting areas of study that can help move the field forward, and to further highlight objects of study and perspectives of inquiry that may profile Sami literacy and writing research as something slightly different from similar studies done in the majority context. There are good opportunities, for example, to describe what contents should be included in Sami and Indigenous literacy, and to strengthen the collaborative research methodologies that can create a stronger connection and association between the Sami literacy research field and Indigenous research methodologies.
One of the arenas that is more readily accessible for an expanding number of writers and readers is the one of social media. Social media helps languages expand to new domains that promote innovation and creativity, helps to reach varied audiences, and promotes the inclusion of new groups of language learners, speakers, and users (Outakoski et al., 2018, p. 29). Social media-supported writing in Sami languages is essential if we want to ensure revitalisation and future language development. The preliminary results from the collaborative research projects imply that the Sami educational sector has yet to embrace this new arena of writing, as it is still rather invisible in classroom practices and as a didactic choice in Sami teacher education.
Another welcomed initiative is the establishment and funding of Sami author communities such as Bágo Äálliid siebrie, a non-profit Sami author and writer association, or Sámi fágagirjjálaÅ¡ Äálliid ja jorgaleaddjiid searvi, the association for professional Sami translators and authors of non-fiction. Such associations create long-needed author and translator communities that offer support for new and established writers in the form of courses, advice, a support community, and help when applying for external funding. It is also easier for external actors and potential employers to find professional writers through organised associations. Potentially then, these associations function as
Finally, I want to promote community and societal initiatives that strengthen Sami literacy and reading skills among the Sami. One such initiative has been the library bus, or mobile library, that for years has operated between the neighbouring municipalities of northernmost Finland and Norway. Due to increased costs, the library bus was immobilized for a short period of time, and the initial cooperation between earlier partners was stopped. However, the mobile library initiative came back as a new collaboration between the municipalities of Unjárga/Nesseby and Deanu/Tana in Norway and Ohcejohka/Utsjoki in Finland. The library bus offers readings for different audiences in several languages, Sami included. For the initiative to reach its goals of increasing numbers of readers in the three northern municipalities, the initiative should be investigated and included in the didactic models and goals of the schools in the area. Parents of young children need guidance and suggestions of what to read, and the schools can also arrange theme days or other reading activities in connection with the library visits which take place twice a month. It is much easier to retain and develop reading when it is made into a natural routine at home and in school, than if it only consists of forced and sporadic reading efforts.
6 Conclusion
Recalling the first question that was asked at the beginning of this chapter, I conclude that this chapter presents several key research projects that were recently completed or are presently underway in the field of literacy in the Sami context in the beginning of 2020. The chapter reveals an emerging field of study and pedagogical and didactic development that enters the Indigenous literacy landscape, which is often loaded with linguistic input and literacy content in languages other than Sami. In the beginning of 2020, Sami literacy
Turning then to the second question, concerning the development and growth of Sami literacy and writing research, I conclude that the several different examples of potential new research projects that have been suggested throughout the chapter show that the field offers many future research opportunities. Sami literacy and writing can be studied from several different perspectives, including pedagogy, linguistics, didactics, and language sociology. Writing and reading research done in Sami educational contexts has the potential to directly inform practice, and to help shape Sami language didactic models that spring from Sami knowledge and values. Such models are then expected to better consider the challenges and affordances connected to the complexity of the heritage language context, and to language revitalisation and Sami society strengthening efforts. Two specific examples of natural future steps in the field have been identified to be (1) the development of new empirical and experimental projects that can be locally adjusted and scaled down to suitable size, and (2) projects that investigate writing using the âwriting/ reading-to-learnâ approaches that are interested in understanding how writing can shape and support our learning processes.
This chapter has also looked at some interesting new developments and community initiatives within Sami literacy studies that have not yet been fully investigated, but that can be easily included in future didactic models of teaching and learning Sami writing and reading. As studies of Sami language didactics and different aspects of literacy among the Sámi emerge, it is critical that we support these efforts and find new academic and human resources in the Sámi educational field.
I want to express my deepest gratitude to all my research partners and research participants. These collaborations are the base and the strength of this emerging research field and make literacy studies possible in the Indigenous Sami context. I also thank the organisers of the IPED (Indigenous Pedagogy in Teacher Education) Network for providing the frames and prerequisites for this work. I also want to thank the reviewers for their valuable, constructive, and encouraging comments.
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