1 Introduction
Based on the 2000 Constitutive Act of the African Union, with its reference to ‘the development of the continent by promoting research in all fields, particular in science and technology’ (OAU 2000, §3[m]), the African Union (AU) has developed specific policies in the field of education, science, and technology (EST). This commitment was renewed in Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want (African Union 2015). Following a brief look at basic facts and figures as well as an overview on policy coordination, this chapter analyses progress, or lack thereof, made in the following AU EST policies: the Continental Education Strategy for Africa (2016–2025), hereinafter CESA 16–25; the Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy for Africa (STISA 2024); the Continental Strategy for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET); the Pan African University (PAU), the Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa (DTS 2020–2030); and the African Space Policy and Space Strategy. In the last part of this chapter, the AU’s policies promoting African identities and knowledge orders are discussed: How has the AU developed further its approaches to arts, culture, and heritage?
2 Fact and Figures about EST in Africa
To find reliable, up-to-date, and comparable data on the status of EST in Africa remains a painstaking task. The comparative figures provided below all show that when compared globally the African continent is still lagging behind (see Yearbook on the African Union 2021, 67–82). The data also suggests that there are considerable differences between (and within) African countries and regions. Partly, this data is reflective of fragile academic institutions and overdependence on international funding of research and development (R&D). Related expenditure in sub-Saharan Africa was 0.44 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2007 (latest figures, World Bank 2023) – as compared to 1.60
Education (all figures World Bank 2023): The net primary school enrolment rate for sub-Saharan Africa was 75 per cent in 2009 (latest figure) – as compared to 94 per cent for the MENA region to a global average of 89 per cent (both 2018). In 2020, the primary school completion rate for sub-Saharan Africa was 71 per cent (2010: 69%) – as compared to 93 per cent for the MENA region (2010: 91%) or to a global average of 90 per cent (2010: 89%). For girls, these figures are even lower: in 2020 in sub-Saharan Africa their primary school completion rate was 69 per cent (2010: 64%) – as compared to 92 per cent for the MENA region (2010: 88%) or to a global average of 90 per cent (2010: 88%). Literacy rates in the age group above years in sub-Saharan Africa was 67 per cent in 2020 (2010: 59%) – as compared to 80 per cent for the MENA region (2010: 76%) or to a global average of 87 per cent (2010: 84%). And tertiary, or university, enrolment in sub-Saharan Africa was only 10 per cent in 2020 (2010: 8%) – as compared to 41 per cent for the MENA region (2010: 31%) or to a global average of 40 per cent (2010: 29%). In Africa, disparities in education are particularly prevalent between boys and girls, rich and poor, urban and rural and that underlying structural inequities can be observed: children from wealthy families benefit more from education spending (Yearbook on the African Union 2021, 68). Despite the many gains made since 2000, the challenges to achieve the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) number 4 ‘Quality Education’ continue to be daunting (see United Nations 2023), partly also because of the devastating effects of the Covid-19 pandemic.
Science (all figures World Bank 2023): As in previous editions of the Yearbook on the African Union, three indicators are briefly looked at here – the number of patent applications (resident), trademark applications with the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), and scientific and technical journal articles. In 2020, 1,834 patents applications were registered for sub-Saharan Africa (2010: 1,181), 15,557 for the MENA region (2010: 13,869), and worldwide 2,304,400 (2010: 1,160,899). The number of trademark applications (resident) was 52,736 for sub-Saharan Africa (2010: 22,681), 614,797 for the MENA region (2010: 37,486), and 14,809,400 worldwide (2010: 4,267,000). Finally, research output in the natural and technical sciences as measured by journal articles confirms the above observations on an African continent that is facing tremendous
Technology (all figures World Bank 2023): In 2021, and reflecting a huge catching-up process, 93 mobile cellular telephone subscriptions per 100 people were counted in sub-Saharan Africa (2010: 44) – as compared to 117 in the MENA region (2010: 89) and 105 worldwide (2010: 76). The number of fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 people in sub-Saharan Africa was 0.76 in 2021 (2010: 0.16) – as compared to 13.53 in the MENA region (2010: 2.53) and 17.79 worldwide (2010: 7.82). And in 2020 the percentage of individuals using the internet compared to the total population was 29 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa (2010: 6%), 76 per cent in the MENA region (2019: 25%), and 60 per cent worldwide (2010: 29%).
3 AU Coordination of EST Policies
The policy field of EST is ‘championed’ by a Committee of Ten Heads of State and Government (C10), led by Macky Sall (Senegal). The committee also comprises Sierra Leone (Western Africa), Egypt, Tunisia (Northern Africa), Malawi, Namibia (Southern Africa), Kenya, Mauritius (Eastern Africa), as well as Chad and Gabon (Central Africa). The establishment of the C10 in this policy field was already planned by the AU Assembly in June 2015, but it was only endorsed in January 2018 (when the C10 met unofficially for the first time). The official inaugural meeting then took place on 2–3 November 2018 in Lilongwe, Malawi. The detailed political work is discussed by the ministerial Specialised Technical Committee on Education, Science, Technology and Innovation (STC–ESTI). Uganda (represented by Dr Monica Musenero Masanza) left as outgoing rotational chair of the bureau (2020–2022), followed by the Central African Republic (CAR, 2022–2024). The committee’s 4th session, which was originally scheduled for 2021, was held on 1–2 September 2022 (virtual). The meeting’s recommendations were to be submitted to the AU Summit in 2023 for consideration (see African Union 2022).
Policy implementation is the responsibility of the AU Commission (AUC). Because of the institutional reform of the AU (see Ulf Engel, this Yearbook, chapter 4), the portfolio Department of Human Resources, Science and Technology was changed in 2021 to the Department of Education, Science, Technology and Innovation (ESTI). In October 2021, the AU Executive Council elected the Algerian professor Mohamed Belhocine as the new commissioner (see
The various subpolicy fields are administered by an array of institutions. In education, these are the PAU, the Pan-African Institute for Education for Development (IPED), and the AU International Centre for Girls and Women Education in Africa (AU/CIEFFA, based in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso). And in science and technology, these agencies include the African Observatory for Science, Technology and Innovation (AOSTI, Malabo, Equatorial Guinea) as well as the Scientific, Technical, Research Commission (STRC, Abuja, Nigeria), which also hosts the African Scientific, Research and Innovation Council (ASRIC).
For the implementation of the policy field ESTI, the AU usually partners with the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the UN Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the Planning and Coordinating Agency (through its Science, Technology and Innovation Hub) of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), as well as bilateral donors, such as Germany’s development agency, the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH.
4 EST Policy Initiatives
As has been discussed in the previous Yearbook on the African Union (2022, 71), according to its own analysis the AU has made some progress in implementing Agenda 2063’s aspiration 1, subgoal 2. Accordingly, by 2063, ‘Well educated and skilled citizens, underpinned by science, technology and innovation for a knowledge society is the norm and no child misses school due to poverty or any form of discrimination’ (African Union 2015, 2). As reported in the last Yearbook on the African Union (2022, 71), in its second monitoring report on the First Ten-Year Implementation Plan of Agenda 2063, the AUC and the AU Development Agency (AUDA–NEPAD) took note that while in 2019 only 25 per cent of this aim had been achieved, by 2021 the implementation status had
4.1 Continental Education Strategy for Africa 2016–2025
CESA 16–25 is inspired by the AU’s Agenda 2063 and the UN SDG 4 ‘Quality Education’; it was adopted at the 26th Ordinary Session of the AU Assembly (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 30–31 January 2016) (see Yearbook on the African Union 2020, 73; see also Awaah et al. 2022). The Covid-19 pandemic is considered ‘the worst shock to education systems in recent global history, with the longest school closures and interruptions to education’ (UNICEF and AUC 2021, 34). Across the worlds, but particularly on the African continent, education systems were ill-prepared. There was a lack of access to distance learning, and above all, the digital divide was felt tremendously (e.g. access to internet and computers in schools, as well as limited home-schooling opportunities) (ibid., 35). In general, the pandemic has had devastating consequences for children’s rights (see ACERWC 2022; Namatende-Sakwa 2023 et al.). Apart from the pandemic, in an assessment of the weaknesses of AU member states, the UN Economic and Social Council in early 2022 highlighted three more factors that are constraining implementation of CESA 16–25: (1) limited government financing for education, (2) the digital divide, and (3) the lack of educational, demographic and labour market data for policy planning and programming (UN ECA 2022, 10).
Nevertheless, some comparative data is available. According to the 2022 Global Knowledge Index from the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Knowledge Foundation (MBRF), five African countries are ranking above the global average score of 62.73 for the indicator group ‘pre-university education’: Mauritius (rank 32/132, score 75.84/100), Seychelles (rank 38, score 74.4), Tunisia (rank 50, score 71.68), Egypt (rank 79, score 64.95), and Cape Verde (rank 80, score 64.31). And at the bottom end of the index are the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC, rank 128, score 25.7), Mali (rank 129, score 22.81), Guinea (rank 130, score 21.67), Chad (rank 131, score 14.56), and Niger (rank 132, score 13.84) (UNDP and MBRF 2023). And regarding the indicator group ‘higher education’, only two African countries are above the global average score of 45.7, namely Seychelles (rank 37, score 53.92) and Botswana (rank 54, score 47.5) – with Mauritius coming very close (rank 63, score 45,69). The five least performing African countries include Benin (rank 127, score 28,93), Mali (rank 128, score 27.3), Niger (rank 129, score 25.1),
4.2 Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy for Africa
The STISA 2024 strategy was adopted in June 2014 (African Union 2014). It aims at (1) building and/or upgrading research infrastructures; (2) enhancing professional and technical competencies; (3) promoting entrepreneurship and innovation; and (4) providing an enabling environment for science, technology, and innovation (STI) development throughout the African continent (see Yearbook on the African Union 2020, 74). The Second Continental Report on the Implementation of Agenda 2063 did not report any specific progress in implementing the Union’s STISA 2024 policy (AUDA–NEPAD 2022; for a rather optimistic read, see Kahn 2022). A recent study provides evidence of ‘uneven progress in promoting gender equality in the operations’ of research-promoting councils (Jackson et al. 2022).
According to the UNDP/MBRF 2022 Global Knowledge Index, only two African countries are ranking above the global average score of 26.46 for ‘research, development, and innovation’: The Gambia (rank 37/132, score 29.83/100) and Seychelles (rank 50, score 26.64). South Africa (rank 53, score 26,39) came close. At the bottom of the ranking are Senegal (score 128, rank 12.76), Niger (rank 129, score 12.72), Ethiopia (rank 130, score 12.12), Burkina Faso (rank 131, score 11.89), and Côte d’Ivoire (rank 132, score 10.43).
4.3 Continental Strategy for Technical and Vocational Education and Training
The 2018 strategy provides ‘a comprehensive framework for the design and development of national policies and strategies to address the challenges of education and technical and vocational training to support economic development and the creation of national wealth and contribute to poverty reduction’ (African Union 2018, 6; see Yearbook on the African Union 2020, 74). Implementation is now the responsibility of AUDA–NEPAD. Again, the Second Continental Report on the Implementation of Agenda 2063 did not report any specific progress in implementing the Union’s TVET policy (AUDA–NEPAD 2022). Select evidence seems to suggest that some AU member states have made considerable progress in the digitalisation of their national TVET policies, but implementation progress in more general terms is being curbed by a combination of factors related to governance, technical equipment, training, financing, and human resources (IIEP 2022, 64–68).
4.4 Pan African University
The Pan African University (PAU), launched on 14 December 2011 as one of the 15 flagship projects of the AU, operates under the ESTI department. It is headquartered in Yaoundé, Cameroon, with campuses in the five regions of the continent.3 According to the PAU Strategic Plan (2020–2024), the period 2012–2018 was the initiation phase, 2019–2024 is the consolidation phase, and 2025–2030 will be the ‘achieving excellence’ phase (PAU 2019, 5).4 Since its inception, the PAU has awarded almost 2,600 scholarships for students from 51 AU member states (67.85% male, 32.15% female). The majority of scholarships were for MA programmes (77.46%). Between 2012 and 2022, 1,617 students have graduated from the PAU (66.85% male, 33.15% female) (see Belhocine 2022). During the period 2011–2022, the university – together with the Institute of Water, Energy Sciences and Climate Change (PAUWES), based at the Abou Bakr Belkaïd University in Tlemcen, Algeria – was financially supported to a great degree by the GIZ. This institute is in the process of introducing a much-needed MA programme ‘Climate Change’.
The PAU governance structure is still work in progress (see Yearbook on the African Union 2021, 74). Although a vice-president for the PAU Council was elected for a three-year term in February 2022 (Prof Amany Abdullah El-Sharif, the dean of the girl’s Faculty of Pharmacy at Al-Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt), the positions of rector and vice-rector remain vacant (AU Council 2022c, §3; Belhocine 2022).5 Achieving financial sustainability and getting continental and international accreditation of the PAU remain the most challenging aspects of this pan-African higher education project (Belhocine 2022). The
Human resources were approved both for the Pan African Virtual and E-University (PAVEU, Yaoundé) and the IPED (Kinshasa) (see AU Assembly 2022, §2[e]; and AU Council 2022d, §110[b]). The personnel for PAVEU comprise 15 positions (including one P5, that is to say one rank next to the highest technical position below the position of a director-general). Annual staff costs are estimated at $1.2 million. The IPED has a staff size of 28 (with two P4 and one P6 positions). Annual staff costs are estimated at $2.13 million.
4.5 Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa
The AU adopted a DTS 2020–2030 for the digitalisation of the continent in the coming decade (9 February 2020; see Yearbook on the African Union 2020, 75f.), falling within the purview of the commissioner for infrastructure and energy, Dr Amani Abou-Zeid (Egypt). In February 2022, the AU Executive Council endorsed the AU Interoperability Framework for Digital ID and the AU Data Policy Framework (AU Council 2022a, §37). It also resolved to develop (1) an AU digital education and implementation plan, an AU digital agriculture strategy and implementation plan, and an e-commerce strategy and continental artificial intelligence (AI) strategy; (2) a continental cybersecurity strategy; (3) a continental child online safety and empowerment policy; (4) a strategy for the digital transformation of the postal sector in Africa; (5) a continental strategy to enhance harmonisation of digital policy, legal, and regulatory frameworks to support the establishment of Africa’s Digital Single Market; (6) a DTS implementation architecture and a M&E Framework; (7) furthermore, a redesigning of the Pan African e-Network to deliver e-health and e-education services; (8) a continental AI strategy; and (9) statistics on digital connectivity and e-readiness of African countries (AU Council 2022d, §38).6
According to the UNDP/MBRF 2022 Global Knowledge Index, only two African countries are above the global average score of 44.83 for ‘information and communications technology’: Seychelles (rank 44/132, score 52.98/100) and Mauritius (rank 51, score 50.98).7 Conversely, the bottom five performers in this respect include Mozambique (rank 128, score 18.21), Niger (rank 129, score 15.98), Burundi (rank 130, score 15.74), Ethiopia (rank 131, score 15.20), and Chad (rank 132, score 15.09) (UNDP and MBRF 2023).
The Union’s space policy was approved by the 26th Ordinary Session of the AU Assembly (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 30–31 January 2016). It aims to bring together ‘a number of fragmented initiatives that have a regional dimension’ (AU Commission 2016, 7). The Second Continental Report on the Implementation of Agenda 2063 highlighted progress in five areas (see Yearbook on the African Union 2021, 76). The human resources approved for the African Space Agency (AfSA), to be hosted by Egypt, include 156 positions, including 22 at the level of P5 and 7 at the level of director-general (D-1 or D-2) (see AU Assembly 2022, §2[g]). Annual staff costs are estimated at $13.10 million.
By 2022, reportedly, 20 AU member states were running space programmes, 13 with their own space agencies,8 and with a total of 48 African satellites orbiting in space. The combined space budgets were estimated at $535 million (Guijarro 2022).
4.7 Ratification of Legal EST Instruments
AU member states remain fairly slow in ratifying and depositing the legal instruments their heads of state and government have adopted in the field of EST. The AUC website lists six legal instruments relating to EST (African Union 2023a). There is only little change compared to 2021 on the status of these legal instruments. Only two, the Statue of the African Space Agency and the Revised Statute of the Pan African University have entered into force (29 January 2018 and 31 January 2016, respectively). Two more member states have ratified and deposited the legal instruments relating to the African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection (27 June 2014): Cape Verde (5 February 2022) and Niger (16 March 2022) – bringing the number of member states that have deposited to 13. And thus far, the Statute of the Pan African Intellectual Property Organization (PAIPO) (30 January 2016) has been signed by six member states – none have ratified or deposited. And the Statute of the African Observatory in Science Technology and Innovation as well as the Statute of the African Science Research and Innovation Council (both 30 January 2016) have not been signed, ratified, or deposited at all.
5 Outlook: EST in Context – Arts, Culture, and Heritage
The Union’s EST policies are deeply embedded in a specific, historically evolved and unequal global political economy of knowledge production and
In the last edition of the Yearbook on the African Union, it was argued that the unequivocal rhetorical thrust to commemorate Africa’s past and build on its arts, culture, and heritage is at odds with the small number of AU member states that have ratified the 2006 Charter for African Cultural Renaissance (replacing the 1976 African Cultural Charter for Africa). Through this document, the AU wants, among many other things, to ‘develop all the dynamic values of the African cultural heritage that promote human rights, social cohesion and human development’ (African Union 2006, §3[k]); it also aims to ‘provide African peoples with the resources to enable them to cope with globalization’ (ibid., §3[l]). In 2022, Madagascar became the 18th member state to deposit the legal instruments of ratification of this charter (African Union 2023b). The original text of the charter required a two-thirds majority for it to enter into force. However, the member states later decided to lower this very high quorum to 15 member states. Accordingly, the charter entered into force on 14 October 2020.9
In the meantime, the academic debate on decolonising knowledge production about the African continent has reached new levels (see, for instance, the works of Falola 2022a,10 2022b; Jansen and Walters 2022; and Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2022). The policy implications of these insights have yet to be fully grasped and
References
Sources
ACERWC 2022. Continental assessment of the impact of COVID-19 on the rights and welfare of Children. Addis Ababa: African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child.
African Union 2006. Charter for African Cultural Renaissance. Addis Ababa: African Union.
African Union 2014. Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy for Africa (STISA 2024). Addis Ababa: African Union.
African Union 2015. Agenda 2063 – The Africa We Want. Popular Version. Addis Ababa: African Union.
African Union 2016. Continental Education Strategy for Africa 2016–2025 (CESA 16–25). Addis Ababa: African Union.
African Union 2018. Continental Strategy for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). To Foster Youth Employment. Addis Ababa: African Union.
African Union 2020. Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa (2020–2030). Addis Ababa: African Union.
African Union 2023a. ‘Treaties on Education, Science & Technology’. Addis Ababa: AU Commission. URL: <https://au.int/en/treaties/1167> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
African Union 2023b. ‘Treaties on Sports, Arts & Culture’. Addis Ababa: AU Commission. URL: <https://au.int/en/treaties/1166> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
African Union 2022. ‘Press Release 69/2022’, Addis Ababa, 5 September. URL: <https://cafor.org/stc-est4-issues-a-declaration-calling-for-increased-investments-in-education-science-technology-and-innovation-in-africa-2/> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
AU Assembly 2022. ‘Decision on Sub-Committee on Structural Reforms’. Adopted at the 35th Ordinary Session of the AU Assembly held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on 5–6 February. Assembly/AU/Dec. 814 (XXXV).
AU Commission 2016. ‘African Space Policy’. Addis Ababa: AUC Department of Human Resources, Science and Technology.
AU Commission 2019. ‘African Space Strategy. For Social, Political and Economic Integration’. Addis Ababa: AU Commission.
AU Council 2022a. ‘Decision on the Reports of the Specialized Technical Committees (STCs) and other Ministerial Meetings’. Adopted at the 40th Ordinary Session of the AU Executive Council held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on 2–3 February. EX.CL/Dec.1144 (XL).
AU Council 2022b. ‘Decision on the Report on the Implementation of Activities on the Roadmap of the AU Theme of the Year for 2021 “Arts, Culture and Heritage: Levers for Building the Africa We Want”. Adopted at the 40th Ordinary Session of the AU Executive Council held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on 2–3 February. EX.CL/Dec.1152 (XL).
AU Council 2022c. ‘Decision on the Election and Appointment of the Vice President of the Pan African University Council’. Adopted at the 40th Ordinary Session of the AU Executive Council held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on 2–3 February. EX.CL/Dec.1166 (XL).
AU Council 2022d. ‘Decision on the Reports of the Sub-Committees of the Permanent Representatives’ Committee (PRC)’. Adopted at the 41st Ordinary Session of the AU Executive Council held in Lusaka, Zambia, on 14–15 July. EX.CL/Dec.1168 (XLI).
AUC and AUDA–NEPAD 2022. Second Continental Report on the Implementation of Agenda 2063. Midrand: AU Commission and African Union Development Agency–NEPAD.
Belhocine, Mohammed 2022. ‘Press conference at the 4th Mid-Year Coordination Meeting’, Lusaka, Zambia, 14 July. URL: <https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20220714/press-conference-he-prof-mohammed-belhocine> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
IIEP 2022. Digital transformation of TVET and skills development systems in Africa. State of play and prospects. Dakar: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning.
OAU 2000. Constitutive Act of the African Union. Lomé: Organisation of African Unity.
PAU 2019. Pan African University. Strategic Plan 2020–2024. Yaoundé: Pan African University.
UNDP and MBRF 2023. Global Knowledge Index 2022. New York, NY: UN Development Programme, and Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Knowledge Foundation (Dubai). URL: <https://www.knowledge4all.com/ranking?Id=2&Color=8C4792> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
UN Economic and Social Council 2022. ‘Sustainable Development Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030’. Geneva: UN Economic Commission for Africa, 1 February. ECA/RFSD/2022/5.
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Academic Literature
Awaah, Fred, Peter Okebukola, and Juma Shabani. 2022. ‘Quality Assurance Mechanisms as Tools to Achieve the Continental Education Strategy for Africa’, West African Journal of Open and Flexible Learning 10 (2): 143–162.
Daniels, Chux, Benedikt Erforth, and Chloe Teevan (eds.) 2023. Africa-Europe Cooperation and Digital Transformation. New York, NY: Routledge.
Evans, David K. and Amina Mendez Acosta 2021. ‘Education in Africa: What are we Learning?’, Journal of African Economies 30 (1): 13–54.
Falola, Toyin 2022a. Decolonizing African Knowledge. Autoethnography and African Epistemologies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Falola, Toyin 2022b. Decolonizing African Studies: Knowledge Production, Agency, and Voice. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Jackson, Jose C. et al.2022. ‘Perspectives on Gender in Science, Technology, and Innovation: A Review of Sub-Saharan Africa’s Science Granting Councils and Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals’, Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analysis, 11 April, doi:
Kahn, Michael J. 2022. ‘The Status of Science, Technology and Innovation in Africa’, Science, Technology & Society (2022): 1–24
Jansen, Jonathan D. and Cyrill A. Walters 2022. The Decolonization of Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Namatende-Sakwa, Lydia, Sarah Lewinger, and Catherine Langsford (eds.) 2023. Covid-19 and Education in Africa. Challenges, Possibilities, and Opportunities. Abingdon: Routledge.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Sabelo J. 2022. Decolonization, Development and Knowledge in Africa: Turning over a New Leaf. London: Routledge.
Savoy, Bénédicte 2022. Africa’s Struggle for Its Art: History of a Postcolonial Defeat. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
Think Tanks & Op-Eds
Guijarro, Óscar Garrido 2022. ‘A common African outer space policy to meet the continent’s challenges’. Madrid: Instituto Espaol de Estudios Estratégicos (= Analysis Paper, 73/2022).
News Reports
Deutsche Welle 2022. ‘Germany to return looted artifacts to Africa’, Bonn, 29 June. URL: <https://www.dw.com/en/germany-to-return-looted-artifacts-to-africa/a-62300419> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
NBC News 2022. ‘U.S. museums return African bronzes stolen in 19th century’, National Broadcasting Company [New York], 13 October. URL: <https://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/us-museums-return-african-bronzes-stolen-19th-century-rcna52138> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
VoA 2022. ‘Africa Sees Some Artifacts Returned, Seeks Many More’, Voice of America [New York], 6 August. URL: <https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/africa-sees-some-artifacts-returned-seeks-many-more/6685846.html> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
Websites
AUC Department of Education, Science, Technology and Innovation. URL: <https://au.int/en/esti>.
AUC Programme on Promoting Sports and Culture. URL: <https://au.int/en/promoting-sports-culture>.
Figures are not entirely consistent with last year’s figures. Some seem to have been adjusted retrospectively by the World Bank (sometimes also concerning the base year 2010).
For the period 2014 to 2023, and based on data submitted by 38 of the 55 AU member states.
Governance, Humanities and Social Sciences in Yaoundé, Cameroon (PAUGHSS); Life and Earth Sciences in Ibadan, Nigeria (PAULESI); Water, Energy Science, and Climate Change in Tlemcen, Algeria (PAUWES); Basic Science, Technology and Innovation in Nairobi, Kenya (PAUSTI); and Space Sciences in Cape Town, South Africa (PAUSS).
The PAU website – like many other websites of the AUC – is not up to date. See URL: <https://pau-au.africa> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
The president of the PAU Council is Prof Kenneth Kamwi Matengu (Namibia), starting in January 2022, and the first vice-president is Prof Paulo Horácio de Sequeira e Carvalho (Angola).
For an overview on African-European cooperation in this field, see Daniels et al. (2023).
The year before five African countries ranked above the global average.
Algeria, Angola, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.
See the explanation by the AU Legal Counsel, Ambassador Dr Namira Ngem (Egypt), on 25 May 2021. URL: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJmchr7_e_4> (accessed: 30 June 2023).
Here the Nigerian historian makes an interesting suggestion on how to use African autoethnographies and poetological narratives to develop African epistemologies.