0.1 Zinc’s Commodity Chain. (Created by the author.) 4
2.1 Theoretical combination of raw materials in the early production of bronze. (Created by the author.) 78
2.2 Theoretical combination of raw materials in the early production of brass. (Created by the author.) 83
4.1 Steps in a trial mining phase. (Created by the author.) 194
4.2 Breakdown of the allocation of zinc output in Guizhou during the eighteenth century, stipulated in mining policies. (Created by the author.) 197
4.3 Steps in closing a mine. (Created by the author.) 198
5.1 Mine entrances and activities at mines. (Illustration derived from DNKCTL, vol. 1; annotations by the author.) 230
5.2 A sectional drawing of shafts in a mine. (Illustration derived from DNKCTL, vol. 1; annotations by the author.) 231
5.3 Personnel organization and management at mines and smelters, as proposed by Guangdong governors, 1730s–1740s. (Created by the author.) 234
5.4 Administration of mining communities, as proposed by Yunnan governors in 1758. (Created by the author.) 240
5.5 Network analysis of the 33 persons in one counterfeiting case in 1751 in the adjoining areas of Pu’an/Guizhou and Luoping/Yunnan. (Created by the author.) 266
6.1 Generalized section through a sulfide-bearing vein showing different alteration products after supergene enrichment. (Created by the author.) 307
6.2 Simplified sectional view of a calamine deposit in Magu, Guizhou Province showing the vertical distribution of ores in different layers/zones. (Created by the author. Data derived from Zhou, Guizhou Hezhang Weining Shuicheng Xinqiankuang.) 312
6.3 Average grade of zinc ores mined in Hunan Province, 1745–1841. (Created by the author. Data derived from more than 100 archival documents (primarily HKTB) that report on the annual output of the metals zinc, lead and copper, and their ores in two major zinc mine clusters in Hunan during 1745–1841.) 338
6.4 Breakdown of zinc ores mined at Majialing and Changfuping, Hunan Province, 1833–1841. (Created by the author. Data derived from HKTB, 02-01-04-20900-019; 02-01-04-20957-003; 02-01-04-21023-023; 02-01-04-21024-015; 02-01-04-21088-002; 02-01-04-21361-019; 02-01-04-21438-027.) 340
7.1 Number of newly opened and closed zinc mines, ca. 1724–1824. (Created by the author. Data derived from DQHDZL (Qianlong edition), vol. 49; DQHDSL (Guangxu edition), vol. 244; MQDA.) 383
7.2 Number of zinc mines being exploited in China, ca. 1724–1824. (Created by the author. Data derived from DQHDZL (Qianlong edition), vol. 49; QHDSL, vol. 244: 880–894; MQDA.) 383
8.1 Illustration of a zinc-smelting scene in the TGKW. (Figure 8.1A is from the original edition, also called the tuben 涂本, published in 1637. Figure 8.1B is from the taoben 陶本 edition, published in 1927.) 402
8.2 Illustration of distilling mercury in the TGKW. (From the original edition of TGKW, published in 1637.) 404
8.3 Simplified flowchart of processing zinc by the traditional Chinese method. (Created by the author.) 407
8.4 Abandoned yurt-like kilns for baking zinc retorts at Magu, Guizhou. (Photo taken by the author 2009.) 415
8.5 Zinc furnace and section view of retort at Woqianchang, Yunnan, around 1915. (Derived from Moore-Bennet, “The Mineral Area of Western China,” 221–2; annotations revised by the author based on the original version.) 422
8.6 Sizes of modern clay retorts used for smelting zinc in the Magu area, Guizhou. (Photos taken by the author 2009.) 426
8.7 Sketch of zinc furnace and retorts at the Magu area, Guizhou, around 1942. (Derived from Tang, “Guizhou xibu qianxin kuangye zhi diaocha,” 8; annotations by the author.) 426
8.8 Zinc furnace and retort nearby Shuikoushan, in Hunan, around 1922. (Derived from Wheler, “Some Chinese Metallurgical Appliances,” 277.) 427
8.9 Sixteenth-century retorts for smelting zinc from Guiyang, Hunan 432
8.10 Equipment used at mines and smelters. (Derived from the DNKCTL, vol. 1; annotations by the author.) 436
8.11 A simplified section of a shaft at the Sidingshan zinc mine, Guangxi. (Created by the author, based on Xia Xiangrong et al., Zhongguo gudai kuangye kaifashi, 284, fig. 62.) 437
8.12 Hauling ores at a mine entrance. (Derived from Ding Wenjiang 丁文江, posthumous work compiled by Yin Zanxun 尹贊勛, Yunnan Gejiu fujin dizhi kuangwu baogao 雲南個舊附近地質礦務報告 (Geological Survey Reports on Mining in the Surrounding Area of Gejiu, Yunnan Province) (Beijing: Shiyebu dizhi diaochasuo 实业部地质调查所 and Guoli Beiping yanjiuyuan dizhixue yanjiusuo 国立北平研究院地质学研究所, 1937), 11. The original illustration was drawn by Liu Guangcheng 劉光城 based upon a photograph.) 440
8.13 Illustration of a circular fan and air ducts from the DNKCTL, vol. 1. (Annotations by the author.) 441
8.14 A cylindrical bellow used for casting iron. (Derived from Hommel, China at work, 28–9.) 443
8.15 Balanced equation of calcining zinc carbonates and calculations of loss in weight. (Created by the author.) 454
8.16 Plan of zinc furnace with a calcining trough in the Magu area, Guizhou. (Created by the author based on the description by Tang, “Guizhou xibu qianxin kuangye zhi diaocha,” 9.) 456
8.17 Flowchart of ore treatment using traditional methods at the Shuikoushan mine, Hunan. (Created by the author based on the description by Tian et al., Hunan shuikoushanqianxinkuang baogao, 24–25.) 459
8.18 Layers of ores and waste after manual jigging at Shuikoushan mine, Hunan. (Created by the author based on Li, Zhongguo kuangye diaocha ji, 165.) 460
8.19 Roasting furnace for zinc blende at the Shuikoushan mine, Hunan. (Derived from Wheler, “Some Chinese Metallurgical Appliances,” 263. The original figure is entitled Roasting Furnace for Lead and Zinc Sulphide (South China).) 463
8.20 Section of retorts showing the retort pocket in a loaded zinc furnace at the Magu area, Guizhou. (Created by the author based on descriptions in Tang, “Guizhou xibu qianxin kuangye zhi diaocha,” 8–9; and Xu, “Guizhousheng Hezhangxian Magu diqu chuantong lianxin gongyi kaocha,” 364, 367.) 474
9.1 Total percentage of zinc output from the Lianhua/Magu and Fuji mines in Guizhou, 1720s–1850. (Created by the author. All the percentage calculations are based on my survey of the archival documents.) 502
9.2 Zinc production from the Lianhua/Magu mine, Guizhou, 1734–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB; YZCNGLKSS.) 502
9.3 Zinc production from the Fuji mine, Guizhou, 1746–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 503
9.4 Zinc production from the Dingtoushan, Mazongling and Qijiawan mines, Guizhou, 1720s–1730s (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from HKTB; YZCNGLKSS.) 505
9.5 Zinc production from the Shazhu mine, Guizhou, 1720s–1750s (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB; YZCNGLKSS.) 505
9.6 Zinc production from the Lezhu mine, Guizhou, 1760s–1790s (annual output). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 506
9.7 Zinc production from the Shuidongpa-Xingfa mine, Guizhou, 1770s–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 508
9.8 Total zinc production in Guizhou, 1720–1850 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB; YZCNGLKSS. Originally published in Chen, “Fueling the Boom,” 92, Figure 4. Copyright © 2014 Koninklijke Brill NV. Reprinted by permission of Brill.) 509
9.9 Total percentage of Guizhou’s zinc output in China, 1720–1850. (Created by the author. All the percentage calculations are based on my survey of the archival documents.) 509
9.10 Zinc production from the BeiKuai mine, Yunnan, 1720s–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 511
9.11 Zinc production from the Zhehai mine, Yunnan, 1740s–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 512
9.12 Zinc production from the Puma mine, Yunnan, 1730s–1780s (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 512
9.13 Total zinc production in Yunnan, 1720–1850 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 513
9.14 Zinc production from the Qianwanggai mine, Sichuan, 1750s–1780s (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 514
9.15 Zinc production from the Baishaling mine, Sichuan, 1760s–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 515
9.16 Total zinc production in Sichuan, 1750s–1850 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 516
9.17 Zinc production from the Majialing mine, Hunan, 1740s–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 518
9.18 Zinc production from the Dongkenghu cluster, Hunan, 1760s–1800s (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 518
9.19 Total zinc production in Hunan, 1740–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB.) 519
9.20 Total zinc production in China, 1720–1840 (annual output with estimates). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB; YZCNGLKSS. Originally published in Chen, “Fueling the Boom,” 92, Figure 3. Copyright © 2014 Koninklijke Brill NV. Reprinted by permission of Brill.) 520
9.21 Total zinc production in China, 1720–1840 (by province). (Created by the author. Data derived from NGDKDA (partly published in MQDA); HKTB; YZCNGLKSS.) 521
10.1 Spatial relationship between zinc ore deposits, coal mines, and zinc smelters. (Created by the author based upon Weber’s location theory. Originally published in Chen, “Fueling the Boom,” 88, Figure 2. Copyright © 2014 Koninklijke Brill NV. Reprinted by permission of Brill.) 532
10.2 A panoramic view of zinc mines, coalfield, and smelters in the case of Daluoshan, Guangxi (1771–1772). (Created by the author based on descriptions in ZPZZ, 04–01–36–0090–004, Chen Huizu 陳輝祖, QL36/4/15 (1771), also republished in QDDKY, 368–9; and ZPZZ, 04-01-36-0090-011, Jueluo Yongde 覺羅永德, QL37/4/1 (1772), also published in QDDKY, 369–70.) 540
10.3 Transportation routes between the Sidingshan zinc mine and its smelters in Guangxi. (Created by the author. Data derived HKTB, 02-01-04-15812-004; HKTB, 02-01-04-17466-011.) 549
10.4 Estimated total consumption of coal fuel in processing zinc in China, 1724–1820. (Created by the author. Originally published in Chen, “Fueling the Boom,” 95, Figure 5. Copyright © 2014 Koninklijke Brill NV. Reprinted by permission of Brill.) 553
10.5 Estimated total consumption of coal fuel and reductant in processing zinc in China, 1724–1820 (at varied ratios of ore to coal to metal). (Created by the author.) 554
10.6 Breakdown of average costs for producing 100 jin (approx. 60 kg) of zinc at four zinc mines/smelters in Guizhou (around 1750). (Created by the author. Data derived from HKTB, 02-01-04-13870-007; HKTB, 02-01-04-13870-008; HKTB, 02-01-04-14496-012; HKTB, 02-01-04-14495-014; HKTB, 02-01-04-13871-001.) 572
10.7 Breakdown of costs for producing 100 jin (approx. 60 kg) of zinc at Baishaling zinc mines/smelters in Sichuan (around 1770). (Created by the author. Data derived from HKTB, 02-01-04-16225-010.) 572
11.1 Zinc distribution and supply within China’s mints. (Created by the author based on descriptions in DQHDSL (Guangxu edition), vol. 218, hubu 67; ZPZZ; GZDQL.) 585
11.2 Comparisons of zinc annual output in Guizhou and official shipments from Guizhou to Beijing and Hankou (1751–1787) 590
11.3 The transport organization of zinc from mines to Hankou and to Beijing, ca. 1735–1840s. (Created by the author based on the description in Tongzheng bianlan (ca. 1879), vol. 3.) 594
11.4 Subprefectural magistrates of the Weining Department in Guizhou (1720s–1790s): starting years and term of office. (Created by the author based on the descriptions in Dadingfu zhi, vol. 23.) 601
11.5 Officials’ social networks and their connections with commerce: the case of Liu Biao around 1769. (Created by the author.) 602
11.6 Breakdown of annual zinc shipments from Guizhou to Beijing (1751–1787). (Created by the author. Data derived primarily from ZPZZ and GZDQL.) 610
11.7 Non-quota related percentages in one official’s normal zinc shipment from Guizhou to Beijing. (Created by the author. Data derived primarily from ZPZZ and GZDQL.) 610
11.8 Frequency of zinc shipwrecks during 1751–1790 (by province). (Created by the author. Data derived primarily from ZPZZ and GZDQL.) 619
11.9 Zinc prices at eighteenth-century Chinese markets. (Created by the author. Data derived from Souza, “Ballast Goods”; Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China; HKTB, 02-01-04-12996-009, QL2/8/3 (1737); HKTB, 02-001-04-13258-012, QL5/7/17 (1740); ZPZZ, QL13/1/15 (1748), in QDDKY, 293–4; MQDA, A151–115, QL13/2/6 (1748); QCWXTK, vol. 14, vol. 15.) 636
11.10 Quantities of zinc exportation in available records, ca. 1680s–1820s. (Created by the author. Data derived from Souza, The Survival of Empire; Souza, “Ballast Goods”; Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China; GZGQL, vol. 17, 266; ZPZZ, 04-01-35-1363-051, kept in Beijing.) 637
11.11 Distribution of Chinese zinc to mints, Hankou markets, and export at Guangzhou, 1777–1783. (Created by the author. Data derived from Souza, The Survival of Empire; Souza, “Ballast Goods”; Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China; my own research results based upon the archival documents of the HKTB in Chapter 9 and this chapter.) 640
11.12 Estimated percentages of zinc distribution in eighteenth-century China. (Created by the author.) 641
11.13 A comparison of annual quota and actual zinc consumption at the Baoquan mint. (Created by the author. Data derived from Vogel, “Chinese Central Monetary Policy and the Yunnan Copper Mining Industry in the Early Qing (1644–1800)”; and my own research results based upon the archival documents of the HKTB.) 643
11.14 A comparison of annual minting quotas and the amount of zinc arriving in Beijing (1751–1787). (Created by the author. Data derived from Vogel, “Chinese Central Monetary Policy and the Yunnan Copper Mining Industry in the Early Qing (1644–1800)”; and my own research results based upon the archival data compiled in the Mint Metal Transportation Database.) 644
11.15 A comparison of total zinc consumption in all Chinese mints and China’s total zinc output (1720s–1840s). (Created by the author. Data derived from Vogel, “Chinese Central Monetary Policy and the Yunnan Copper Mining Industry in the Early Qing (1644–1800)”; and my own research results as presented in Chapter 9.) 645
11.16 Estimated percentage of zinc demanded by Chinese mints, 1720s–1840s (Guizhou and Non-Guizhou sourced zinc). (Created by the author. Data derived from Vogel, “Chinese Central Monetary Policy and the Yunnan Copper Mining Industry in the Early Qing (1644–1800).”) 646