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 Joel Robbins, “Continuity Thinking and the Problem of Christian Culture,” Current Anthropology, 48.1 (2007), 5–17.

 Joel Robbins, “Continuity Thinking and the Problem of Christian Culture,” Current Anthropology, 48.1 (2007), 5–17.)| false
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 Simon Coleman, “Comment on J. Robbins' Continuity Thinking,” Current Anthropology, 48.1 (2007), 19–20, here 20.

 Simon Coleman, “Comment on J. Robbins' Continuity Thinking,” Current Anthropology, 48.1 (2007), 19–20, here 20.)| false
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 Benavides, “Modernity,” 188.

 Benavides, “Modernity,” 188.)| false
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 As performed on 2 March 2011.

 See Richard C. Trexler, Reliving Golgotha: The Passion Play of Iztapalpa (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 144.

 See Richard C. Trexler, Reliving Golgotha: The Passion Play of Iztapalpa (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), 144.)| false
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 My field research (1996, 1997, 1998) was part of the research project “Philippine Passion Rituals” at the Dept. of Religious Studies of the University of Bremen, Germany. The research was supported by a grant from the DFG (German Research Foundation). In the Philippines I was kindly accepted as a research affiliate of the IPC (Institute of Philippine Culture) at the Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City. This paper is part of my more general work on Christian rituals of pain in Europe and the Philippines. See Peter J. Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyon: Rituale des Schmerzes im europäischen und philippinischen Christentum (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 2010).

 See Fernando N. Zialcita, “Popular Interpretations of the Passion of Christ,” Philippine Sociological Review, 34 (1986), 56–62, here 60, 61; Alfredo E. Evangelista, “Penitencia: Ritual and Motivation in Flagellation,” Sunday Times Magazine, 17:36 (April 15, 1962), 10–11; Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyon, 366–377.

 See Fernando N. Zialcita, “Popular Interpretations of the Passion of Christ,” Philippine Sociological Review, 34 (1986), 56–62, here 60, 61; Alfredo E. Evangelista, “Penitencia: Ritual and Motivation in Flagellation,” Sunday Times Magazine, 17:36 (April 15, 1962), 10–11; Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyon, 366–377.)| false
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 See Niels Mulder, Inside Southeast Asia (Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1992), 5; Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyon, 372–374. Going to confession in preparation for ritual self- mortification is absolutely unusual. This fact underscores the different embedment of self-flagellation in the Philippine context. See Zialcita, “Popular Interpretations,” 60.

 See Niels Mulder, Inside Southeast Asia (Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1992), 5; Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyon, 372–374. Going to confession in preparation for ritual self- mortification is absolutely unusual. This fact underscores the different embedment of self-flagellation in the Philippine context. See Zialcita, “Popular Interpretations,” 60.)| false
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 Zialcita, “Popular Interpretations,” 62. The statements recorded by Zialcita are in full accordance with my own investigations. The word kasalanan covers a wide gamut of behavior, ranging from heavy to light misdemeanors, such as “sin, crime, offense, error, impropriety, fault,” as Zialcita asserts. Offenses against God—kasalanan sa Diyos—are “theft out of sheer greed, murder, adultery, rape,” which are considered to be very serious, “because they violate things cherished by the villagers: property, life and honor.” See Fernando N. Zialcita, Notions of Justice: A Study of an Ilocos and a Bulacan Barangay (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1989), 34–35. Raul Pertierra's observation in a Northern Luzon community confirms the absence of a developed notion of sin. Highly developed, however, is the concept of fault, which has a negotiable and situational component. See Raul Pertierra, Religion, Politics, and Rationality in a Philippine Community (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1988), 141.

 Zialcita, “Popular Interpretations,” 62. The statements recorded by Zialcita are in full accordance with my own investigations. The word kasalanan covers a wide gamut of behavior, ranging from heavy to light misdemeanors, such as “sin, crime, offense, error, impropriety, fault,” as Zialcita asserts. Offenses against God—kasalanan sa Diyos—are “theft out of sheer greed, murder, adultery, rape,” which are considered to be very serious, “because they violate things cherished by the villagers: property, life and honor.” See Fernando N. Zialcita, Notions of Justice: A Study of an Ilocos and a Bulacan Barangay (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1989), 34–35. Raul Pertierra's observation in a Northern Luzon community confirms the absence of a developed notion of sin. Highly developed, however, is the concept of fault, which has a negotiable and situational component. See Raul Pertierra, Religion, Politics, and Rationality in a Philippine Community (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1988), 141.)| false
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 See also Zialcita, “Popular Interpretations,” 61. The historical development of Christian rituals of “sacred pain” is elaborated in Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyon, 43–184.

 See also Zialcita, “Popular Interpretations,” 61. The historical development of Christian rituals of “sacred pain” is elaborated in Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyon, 43–184.)| false
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 See John L. Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565–1700 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959).

 See John L. Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565–1700 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959).)| false
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 Francisco, “The Philippines,” 99.

 Francisco, “The Philippines,” 99.)| false
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 Francisco, “The Philippines,” 103.

 Francisco, “The Philippines,” 103.)| false
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 Bienvenido L. Lumbera, Tagalog Poetry 1570–1898: Tradition and Influences in its Developments (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1986), 57–66.

 Bienvenido L. Lumbera, Tagalog Poetry 1570–1898: Tradition and Influences in its Developments (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1986), 57–66.)| false
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 Nicanor Tiongson, “Pasyon: The Best Known Filipino Book,” Archipelago, 4 (1976), 1–28; for a scholarly edition of the two important Pasyon texts, see René B. Javellana, Mahal na Pasiong ni Jesu Cristong Panginoon natin na tolal (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1990), René B. Javellana, Casaysayan nang Pasiong Mahal ni Jesuscristong Panginoon Natin na Sucat Ipag-Alab nang Puso nang Sinomang Babasa (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1988).

 Nicanor Tiongson, “Pasyon: The Best Known Filipino Book,” Archipelago, 4 (1976), 1–28; for a scholarly edition of the two important Pasyon texts, see René B. Javellana, Mahal na Pasiong ni Jesu Cristong Panginoon natin na tolal (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1990), René B. Javellana, Casaysayan nang Pasiong Mahal ni Jesuscristong Panginoon Natin na Sucat Ipag-Alab nang Puso nang Sinomang Babasa (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1988).)| false
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 In his chronicle of 1604, the Jesuit Pedro Chirino mentions a certain Diego de Leon as the first to introduce disciplina as penance on Panay Island. See Pedro de Chirino S.J., Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (Manila: Historical Conservation Society, XV, 1969 edition [1604]), 285. For the history of the Western concept of disciplina and self-flagellation as a monastic and lay practice, see Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyon, 106–117, 196–202.

 See Caridad M. Barrion, Religious Life of the Laity in Eighteenth-Century Philippines as Reflected in the Decrees of the Council of Manila of 1771 and the Synod of Calasiao of 1773 (Ph.D. dissertation, Manila: University of Santo Tomas, 1960), 304, 307; Philip F. Smith, “The Acts of the Synod of Calasiao, 1773,” Philippiniana Sacra, 5.14 (1970), 185–229; Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyion, 361.

 See Caridad M. Barrion, Religious Life of the Laity in Eighteenth-Century Philippines as Reflected in the Decrees of the Council of Manila of 1771 and the Synod of Calasiao of 1773 (Ph.D. dissertation, Manila: University of Santo Tomas, 1960), 304, 307; Philip F. Smith, “The Acts of the Synod of Calasiao, 1773,” Philippiniana Sacra, 5.14 (1970), 185–229; Bräunlein, Passion/Pasyion, 361.)| false
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 Reynaldo Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840–1910 (Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979), 5. With the imposition of martial law and the anti-Marcos struggle during the 1970s and 1980s, a centuries-long tradition of anti- colonial resistance was made known by scholars such as Reynaldo Ileto, Alfred McCoy, or William Henry Scott. The Philippine people as docile disciples, Christianity as an unproblematic gift of colonial rule—such a view was no longer convenient. James C. Scott's The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976) has had the most profound impact on such a new perspective. See also William H. Scott, Cracks in the Parchment Curtain, and Other Essays in Philippine History (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila Press, 1985), Alfred W. McCoy, “Baylan: Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology,” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 10.3 (1982), 141–193.

 Reynaldo Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840–1910 (Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979), 5. With the imposition of martial law and the anti-Marcos struggle during the 1970s and 1980s, a centuries-long tradition of anti- colonial resistance was made known by scholars such as Reynaldo Ileto, Alfred McCoy, or William Henry Scott. The Philippine people as docile disciples, Christianity as an unproblematic gift of colonial rule—such a view was no longer convenient. James C. Scott's The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976) has had the most profound impact on such a new perspective. See also William H. Scott, Cracks in the Parchment Curtain, and Other Essays in Philippine History (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila Press, 1985), Alfred W. McCoy, “Baylan: Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology,” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 10.3 (1982), 141–193.)| false
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 See Barker, “Religious Self-Mortification,” 1140.

 See Barker, “Religious Self-Mortification,” 1140.)| false
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 Danilyn Rutherford, “After Syncretism: The Anthropology of Islam and Christianity in Southeast Asia: A Review Article,” Comparative Studies in Sociology and History, 44.1 (2002), 196–205, here 196. See also Charles Stewart and Rosalind Shaw (eds.), Syncretism/Anti-Syncretism: The Politics of Religious Synthesis (London: Routledge, 1994); Luther H. Martin and Anita Maria Leopold (eds.), New Approaches to the Study of Syncretism (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2004).

 Danilyn Rutherford, “After Syncretism: The Anthropology of Islam and Christianity in Southeast Asia: A Review Article,” Comparative Studies in Sociology and History, 44.1 (2002), 196–205, here 196. See also Charles Stewart and Rosalind Shaw (eds.), Syncretism/Anti-Syncretism: The Politics of Religious Synthesis (London: Routledge, 1994); Luther H. Martin and Anita Maria Leopold (eds.), New Approaches to the Study of Syncretism (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2004).)| false
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 See Phelan, The Hispanization, 80. Phelan connects ‘identity’ with pagan beliefs and rituals, and the new ‘blending’ called ‘popular’ or ‘folk Catholicism’ is associated with the loss of that identity. John N. Schumacher defined syncretism in Philippine folk Catholicism as an “admixture of elements of pre-Hispanic animistic practices and beliefs with Catholic ritual elements, so as to form what is essentially a different religion from orthodox Catholicism.” See John N. Schumacher, “Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Historical Causes,” Philippine Studies, 32 (1984), 251–272, here 251.

 See Phelan, The Hispanization, 80. Phelan connects ‘identity’ with pagan beliefs and rituals, and the new ‘blending’ called ‘popular’ or ‘folk Catholicism’ is associated with the loss of that identity. John N. Schumacher defined syncretism in Philippine folk Catholicism as an “admixture of elements of pre-Hispanic animistic practices and beliefs with Catholic ritual elements, so as to form what is essentially a different religion from orthodox Catholicism.” See John N. Schumacher, “Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Historical Causes,” Philippine Studies, 32 (1984), 251–272, here 251.)| false
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 Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), 138; Charles Macdonald, “Folk Catholicism and pre-Spanish Religions in the Philippines,” Philippine Studies, 52.1 (2004), 78–93, here 79.

 Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), 138; Charles Macdonald, “Folk Catholicism and pre-Spanish Religions in the Philippines,” Philippine Studies, 52.1 (2004), 78–93, here 79.)| false
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 See Macdonald, “Folk Catholicism,” 88.

 See Macdonald, “Folk Catholicism,” 88.)| false
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 See Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994); Stuart Hall, “Cultural Identity and Diaspora,” in: Jonathan Rutherford (ed.), Identity: Community, Culture, and Difference (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1990), 222–237; Serge Gruzinski, The Mestizo Mind: The Intellectual Dynamics of Colonization and Globalization (London: Routledge, 2002). We can also add here James Clifford’s effort to revaluate that pejorative term ‘syncretism’ by coining the term “inventive syncretism.” See James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 22–23.

 See Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994); Stuart Hall, “Cultural Identity and Diaspora,” in: Jonathan Rutherford (ed.), Identity: Community, Culture, and Difference (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1990), 222–237; Serge Gruzinski, The Mestizo Mind: The Intellectual Dynamics of Colonization and Globalization (London: Routledge, 2002). We can also add here James Clifford’s effort to revaluate that pejorative term ‘syncretism’ by coining the term “inventive syncretism.” See James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 22–23.)| false
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 Robert D. Baird, Category Formation and the History of Religions (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), 151.

 Robert D. Baird, Category Formation and the History of Religions (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), 151.)| false
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 Michele M. Moody-Adams, Fieldwork in Familiar Places: Morality, Culture, and Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 62.

 Michele M. Moody-Adams, Fieldwork in Familiar Places: Morality, Culture, and Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 62.)| false
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 See Portia L. Reyes, “Fighting over a Nation: Theorizing a Filipino Historiography,” Postcolonial Studies, 11.3 (2008), 241–258.

 See Portia L. Reyes, “Fighting over a Nation: Theorizing a Filipino Historiography,” Postcolonial Studies, 11.3 (2008), 241–258.)| false
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 Zialcita, Authentic Though not Exotic, 5.

 Zialcita, Authentic Though not Exotic, 5.)| false
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 Rutherford, “After Syncretism,” 196. Behind such questions lurks, of course, a general discomfort with the concept of ‘religion’ authoritatively expressed by Talal Asad's Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), or recently, with a different emphasis, by Dipesh Chakrabarty's Provincializing Europe. The critique of a Eurocentric concept of religion by Syed Farid Alatas draws its conclusions mainly from Joachim Matthes' exploratory work. See Syed Farid Alatas, Alternative Discourses in Asian Social Sciences: Responses to Eurocentrism (Delhi: Sage Publ., 2006), 179–186; and Joachim Matthes, “Religion in the Social Sciences: A Socio-Epistemological Critique,” Akademika, 56 (2000), 85–105.

 Rutherford, “After Syncretism,” 196. Behind such questions lurks, of course, a general discomfort with the concept of ‘religion’ authoritatively expressed by Talal Asad's Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993), or recently, with a different emphasis, by Dipesh Chakrabarty's Provincializing Europe. The critique of a Eurocentric concept of religion by Syed Farid Alatas draws its conclusions mainly from Joachim Matthes' exploratory work. See Syed Farid Alatas, Alternative Discourses in Asian Social Sciences: Responses to Eurocentrism (Delhi: Sage Publ., 2006), 179–186; and Joachim Matthes, “Religion in the Social Sciences: A Socio-Epistemological Critique,” Akademika, 56 (2000), 85–105.)| false
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 As suggested by Zialcita, Authentic Though not Exotic, 212.

 As suggested by Zialcita, Authentic Though not Exotic, 212.)| false
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 Vicente Rafael, Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society Under Early Spanish Rule (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1988), 15.

 Vicente Rafael, Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society Under Early Spanish Rule (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1988), 15.)| false
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 Rafael, Contracting Colonialism, 127.

 Rafael, Contracting Colonialism, 127.)| false
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 Rafael, Contracting Colonialism, 211.

 Rafael, Contracting Colonialism, 211.)| false
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 Gavin Walker, “Postcoloniality in Translation: Historicities of the Present,” Postcolonial Studies, 14.1 (2011), 111–126, here 120.

 Gavin Walker, “Postcoloniality in Translation: Historicities of the Present,” Postcolonial Studies, 14.1 (2011), 111–126, here 120.)| false
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 Werner and Zimmermann, “Beyond comparison,” 38.

 Werner and Zimmermann, “Beyond comparison,” 38.)| false
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 Werner and Zimmermann, “Beyond comparison,” 32–3.

 Werner and Zimmermann, “Beyond comparison,” 32–3.)| false
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 Werner and Zimmermann, “Beyond comparison,” 38.

 Werner and Zimmermann, “Beyond comparison,” 38.)| false
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 Werner and Zimmermann, “Beyond comparison,” 43.

 Werner and Zimmermann, “Beyond comparison,” 43.)| false
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 Cannell, “Introduction,” 22.

 Cannell, “Introduction,” 22.)| false
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 Riesebrodt, “Religion in Global Perspective,” 607.

 Riesebrodt, “Religion in Global Perspective,” 607.)| false
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 Riesebrodt, “Religion in Global Perspective,” 600, 602.

 Riesebrodt, “Religion in Global Perspective,” 600, 602.)| false
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