Sleep behaviour has been recorded for only ten percent of primate species. Here, we contribute to this literature by using videography to collect novel sleep behaviour data on captive gorillas. We measured, to our knowledge, the first ever sleep architecture preliminary baseline estimate data in a population of captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at the Basel Zoo (Switzerland) over three months (n = 90 nights of observation). The results of this study showed significant differences in levels of sleep fragmentation between the one dominant male of our gorilla community and the subordinate individuals (one young male and females ranging in age) of the same community. This perhaps suggests that dominant individuals may suffer in their overall sleep quality however, because dominance and sex are confounded in this population, these patterns should be interpreted cautiously. While this result could be interpreted to be tradeoff between the requirements of sleep and group protection by the dominant silver back, the results of this study are novel and the first of its kind. Thus, while these preliminary differences raise questions about how social roles may relate to sleep behaviour in gorillas, further research with larger samples is required to understand how biological sex, dominance rank, and the interaction between the two within gorilla populations, influences sleep within gorillas.
Purchase
Buy instant access (PDF download and unlimited online access):
Institutional Login
Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials
Personal login
Log in with your brill.com account
Acerbi A, Nunn CL (2011). Predation and the phasing of sleep: an evolutionary individual-based model. Animal Behaviour 81: 801–811.
Almeneessier AS, Alshahrani M, Aleissi S, Hammad OS, Olaish AH, BaHammam AS (2020). Comparison between blood pressure during obstructive respiratory events in REM and NREM sleep using pulse transit time. Scientific Reports 10: 1–10.
Anderson JR (1998). Sleep, sleeping sites, and sleep-related activities: Awakening to their significance. American Journal of Primatology 46: 63–75.
Andrade KC, Spoormaker VI, Dresler M, Wehrle R, Holsboer F, Sämann PG, Czisch M (2011). Sleep spindles and hippocampal functional connectivity in human NREM sleep. Journal of Neuroscience 31: 10331–10339.
Barry ES (2021). Sleep consolidation, sleep problems, and co–sleeping: rethinking normal infant sleep as species-typical. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 182: 183–204.
Barton K, Barton MK (2015). Package ‘mumin’. Version, 1(18).
Bates D, Kliegl R, Vasishth S, Baayen H (2015). Parsimonious mixed models. arXiv:.
Bates D, Maechler M, Bolker B, Walker S, Christensen RHB, Singmann H, Bolker MB (2015). Package ‘lme4’. Convergence 12: 2.
Benkirane O, Delwiche B, Mairesse O, Peigneux P (2022). Impact of sleep fragmentation on cognition and fatigue. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19: 15485.
Breuer T (2008). Male reproductive success in wild western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). Leipzig, University of Leipzig.
Breuer T, Robbins AM, Olejniczak C, Parnell RJ, Stokes EJ, Robbins MM (2010). Variance in the male reproductive success of western gorillas: acquiring females is just the beginning. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 64: 515–528.
Breuer T, Robbins MM, Boesch C (2007). Using photogrammetry and color scoring to assess sexual dimorphism in wild western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 134: 369–382.
Capellini I, Barton RA, McNamara P, Preston B, Nunn CL (2008a). Ecology and evolution of mammalian sleep. Evolution 62: 1764–1776.
Capellini I, Nunn CL, McNamara P, Preston BT, Barton RA (2008b). Energetic constraints, not predation, influence the evolution of sleep patterning in mammals. Functional Ecology 22: 847–853.
Cassini MH (2020). Sexual size dimorphism and sexual selection in primates. Mammal Review 50: 231–239.
Chen J, Yang P, Zhang Q, Li W, Wang X, Li J (2024). Collective decision–making in nocturnal huddling sleep: The influence of social factors on fans and fandom in Tibetan macaques. Global Ecology and Conservation 54: e03055.
Crook JH (2017). Sexual selection, dimorphism, and social organization in the primates. In Sexual selection and the descent of man (Campbell BG, ed.), pp. 231–281. Abingdon, Routledge.
Darwin C, Griffith T (1874). The descent of man, Vol. 4. New York, NY, Prometheus Books.
De Gennaro L, Ferrara M, Bertini M (2000). Topographical distribution of spindles: variations between and within NREM sleep cycles. Sleep Research Online 3: 155–160.
Eban-Rothschild A, Giardino WJ, de Lecea L (2017). To sleep or not to sleep: neuronal and ecological insights. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 44: 132–138.
Fay JM (1997). The ecology, social organization, populations, habitat and history of the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla Savage and Wyman, 1847). St. Louis, MO, Washington University in St. Louis.
Forcina G, Vallet D, Le Gouar PJ, Bernardo-Madrid R, Illera G, Molina-Vacas G, Dréano S, Revilla E, Rodríguez-Teijeiro JD, Ménard N, Bermejo M, Vilà C (2019). From groups to communities in western lowland gorillas. Proceedings of the Royal Society London Series B: Biological Sciences 286: 20182019.
Fox J, Friendly GG, Graves S, Heiberger R, Monette G, Nilsson H, Ripley B, Weisberg S, Fox MJ, Suggests MASS (2007). The car package. Vienna, R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Fruth B, Tagg N, Stewart F (2018). Sleep and nesting behaviour in primates: a review. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 166: 499–509.
Gruber T, Clay Z (2016). A comparison between bonobos and chimpanzees: A review and update. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 25: 239–252.
Hamilton III WJ (1982). Baboon sleeping site preferences and relationships to primate grouping patterns. American Journal of Primatology 3: 41–53.
Han J, Zou Q, Dong X, Dong B, Bai W (2024). Sleeping behaviour of the wild François’ langur (Trachypithecus francoisi) in Mayanghe Nature Reserve, China. Ethology, Ecology and Evolution 36: 262–274.
Havercamp K, Morimura N, Hirata S (2021). Sleep patterns of aging chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). International Journal of Primatology 42: 89–104.
Hey J (2010). The divergence of chimpanzee species and subspecies as revealed in multipopulation isolation–with–migration analyses. Molecular Biology and Evolution 27: 921–933.
Himanen SL, Virkkala J, Huhtala H, Hasan J (2002). Spindle frequencies in sleep EEG show U-shape within first four NREM sleep episodes. Journal of Sleep Research 11: 35–42.
Isbell LA (1991). Contest and scramble competition: patterns of female aggression and ranging behavior among primates. Behavioral Ecology 2: 143–155.
Kamphuis J, Lancel M, Koolhaas JM, Meerlo P (2015). Deep sleep after social stress: NREM sleep slow–wave activity is enhanced in both winners and losers of a conflict. Brain, Behaviour and Immunity 47: 149–154.
Kappeler PM, Van Schaik CP (Eds.) (2004). Sexual selection in primates: new and comparative perspectives. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Kavanau JL (1997). Memory, sleep, and the evolution of mechanisms of synaptic efficacy maintenance. Neuroscience 79: 7–44.
Langergraber KE, Prüfer K, Rowney C, Boesch C, Crockford C, Fawcett K, Inoue E, Inoue-Muruyama M, Mitani JC, Muller MN, Robbins MM, Schubert G, Stoinski TS, Viola B, Watts D, Wittig RM, Wrangham RW, Zuberbühler K, Pääb S, Vigilant L (2012). Generation times in wild chimpanzees and gorillas suggest earlier divergence times in great ape and human evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109: 15716–15721.
Lesku JA, Rattenborg NC, Valcu M, Vyssotski AL, Kuhn S, Kuemmeth F, Heidrich W, Kempenaers B (2012). Adaptive sleep loss in polygynous pectoral sandpipers. Science 337: 1654–1658.
Lima SL, Rattenborg NC, Lesku JA, Amlaner CJ (2005). Sleeping under the risk of predation. Animal Behaviour 70: 723–736.
Lukas KE, Stoinski TS, Burks K, Snyder R, Bexell S, Maple TL (2003). Nest building in captive Gorilla gorilla gorilla. International Journal of Primatology 24: 103–124.
Maestripieri D, Ross SR (2004). Sex differences in play among western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) infants: implications for adult behaviour and social structure. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123: 52–61.
Mao A, Burnham MM, Goodlin-Jones BL, Gaylor EE, Anders TF (2004). A comparison of the sleep–wake patterns of cosleeping and solitary-sleeping infants. Child Psychiatry and Human Development 35: 95–105.
Martin SE, Engleman HM, Deary IJ, Douglas NJ (1996). The effect of sleep fragmentation on daytime function. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 153: 1328–1332.
McKenna JJ (2008). Cosleeping and biological imperatives: why human babies do not and should not sleep alone. Neuroanthropology 12: 21.
Mizuno Y, Takeshita H, Matsuzawa T (2006). Behaviour of infant chimpanzees during the night in the first 4 months of life: smiling and suckling in relation to behavioural state. Infancy 9: 215–324.
Nasatir-Hilty SE (2014). Cosleeping: A universal human phenomenon. Available at https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1150&context=socssp.
Nishida M, Pearsall J, Buckner RL, Walker MP (2009). REM sleep, prefrontal theta, and the consolidation of human emotional memory. Cerebral Cortex 19: 1158–1166.
Nunn CL, Samson DR (2018). Sleep in a comparative context: Investigating how human sleep differs from sleep in other primates. American Journal of Biological Anthropology 166: 601–612.
Parnell RJ (2002). Group size and structure in western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Mbeli Bai, Republic of Congo. American Journal of Primatology 56: 193–206.
Pedersen TL (2019). Package ‘patchwork’. Available at http://CRAN.R--project.org/package=patchwork.
Piffer D (2010). Sleep patterns and sexual selection: an evolutionary approach. Mankind Quarterly 50: 361.
Potel H, Singa FSN, Cipolletta C, Fuh TN, Bardino G, Konyal E, Strampelli P, Henschel P, Masi S (2024). Lethal combats in the forest among wild western gorillas. Iscience 27: 109437.
Reyes KR (2019). Feeding ecology and habitat use of the Senegal Parrot at Fongoli: Possible implications for sympatric chimpanzees. Master’s thesis, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX.
Reyes KR (2025). Investigation of Non–Human Ape Sleep Architecture. Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON.
Reyes KR, Patel UA, Nunn CL, Samson DR (2021). Gibbon sleep quantified: the influence of lunar phase and meteorological variables on activity in Hylobates moloch and Hylobates pileatus. Primates 62: 749–759.
Roehrs T, Merlotti L, Petrucelli N, Stepanski E, Roth T (1994). Experimental sleep fragmentation. Sleep 17: 438–443.
Salmi R, Muñoz M (2020). The context of chest beating and hand clapping in wild western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Primates 61: 225–235.
Samson DR, Nunn CL (2015). Sleep intensity and the evolution of human cognition. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 24: 225–237.
Samson DR, Shumaker RW (2013). Documenting orangutan sleep architecture: sleeping platform complexity increases sleep quality in captive Pongo. Behaviour 150: 845–861.
Samson DR, Hurst D, Shumaker RW (2014). Orangutan night-time long call behaviour: sleep quality costs associated with vocalizations in captive Pongo. Advances in Zoology 2014: 101763.
Samson DR, Vining A, Nunn CL (2019). Sleep influences cognitive performance in lemurs. Animal Cognition 22: 697–706.
Smith BP, Hazelton PC, Thompson KR, Trigg JL, Etherton HC, Blunden SL (2017). A multispecies approach to co–sleeping: Integrating human–animal co-sleeping practices into our understanding of human sleep. Human Nature 28: 255–273.
Stokes EJ (2004). Within-group social relationships among females and adult males in wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Primatology 64: 233–246.
Stokes EJ, Parnell RJ, Olejniczak C (2003). Female dispersal and reproductive success in wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 54: 329–339.
Szymusiak R (2018). Body temperature and sleep. Handbook of Clinical Neurology 156: 341–351.
Taylor AB (1997). Relative growth, ontogeny, and sexual dimorphism in gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla and G. g. beringei): evolutionary and ecological considerations. American Journal of Primatology 43: 1–31.
van der Valk T, Jensen A, Caillaud D, Guschanski K (2024). Comparative genomic analyses provide new insights into evolutionary history and conservation genomics of gorillas. BMC Ecology and Evolution 24: 14.
Vyazovskiy VV, Delogu A (2014). NREM and REM sleep: complementary roles in recovery after wakefulness. The Neuroscientist 20(3): 203–219.
Watts DP (2003). Gorilla social relationships: a comparative overview. In Gorilla biology: a multidisciplinary perspective (Taylor AB, Goldsmith ML, eds.), pp. 302–372. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Weiche I, Anderson JR (2007). Influence of social and environmental factors on nesting behaviour in captive gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Folia Primatologica 78: 154–165.
Wickham H (2006). An introduction to ggplot: an implementation of the grammar of graphics in R. Statistics 1: 1–8.
Wrangham R (2024). Hypotheses for the evolution of bonobos: self–domestication and ecological adaptation. In Bonobos and people at Wamba: 50 years of research (Furuichi T, Kimura D, Hashimoto C, Idani G, Ihobe H, eds.), pp. 521–544. Singapore, Springer Nature.
Xie L, Kang H, Xu Q, Chen MJ, Liao Y, Thiyagarajan M, Nedergaard M (2013). Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain. Science 342: 373–377.
Zanghi BM, Kerr W, Gierer J, de Rivera C, Araujo JA, Milgram NW (2013). Characterizing behavioural sleep using actigraphy in adult dogs of various ages fed once or twice daily. Journal of Veterinary Behaviour 8: 195–203.
| All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 326 | 326 | 149 |
| Full Text Views | 4 | 4 | 2 |
| PDF Views & Downloads | 14 | 14 | 6 |
Sleep behaviour has been recorded for only ten percent of primate species. Here, we contribute to this literature by using videography to collect novel sleep behaviour data on captive gorillas. We measured, to our knowledge, the first ever sleep architecture preliminary baseline estimate data in a population of captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at the Basel Zoo (Switzerland) over three months (n = 90 nights of observation). The results of this study showed significant differences in levels of sleep fragmentation between the one dominant male of our gorilla community and the subordinate individuals (one young male and females ranging in age) of the same community. This perhaps suggests that dominant individuals may suffer in their overall sleep quality however, because dominance and sex are confounded in this population, these patterns should be interpreted cautiously. While this result could be interpreted to be tradeoff between the requirements of sleep and group protection by the dominant silver back, the results of this study are novel and the first of its kind. Thus, while these preliminary differences raise questions about how social roles may relate to sleep behaviour in gorillas, further research with larger samples is required to understand how biological sex, dominance rank, and the interaction between the two within gorilla populations, influences sleep within gorillas.
| All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 326 | 326 | 149 |
| Full Text Views | 4 | 4 | 2 |
| PDF Views & Downloads | 14 | 14 | 6 |