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Drawing on Slavoj Žižekâs book Violence, I apply the concepts of subjective, systemic, and symbolic violence to an analysis of the imagery and ideology of slavery in the book of Job. Much of the rhetoric of the book of Job paints Job as the innocent victim of subjective violence. As part of this, Job deploys the imagery of slavery to portray both his suffering and his righteousness. Within the world of the story, however, Job is the principal beneficiary of the systemic violence of the institution of slavery. His rhetoric renders invisible the systemic violence of slavery, and displaces his own slaves from consideration as victims of violence. With regard to systemic violence, Job is revealed to be a perpetrator more than he is a victim.â©
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George Orwell, Animal Farm: A Fairy Story (Penguin Modern Classics; Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1951), p. 114.
Slavoj Žižek, Violence: Six Sideways Reflections (Big Ideas; London: Profile Books, 2008).
Žižek, Violence, p. 1. Similarly, âThe same philanthropists who give millions for AIDS or education in tolerance have ruined the lives of thousands through financial speculation and thus created the conditions for the rise of the very intolerance that is being foughtâ (Violence, p. 31).
Hector Avalos, Slavery, Abolitionism, and the Ethics of Biblical Scholarship (The Bible in the Modern World, 38; Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2011), pp. 23-95. Avalosâ book is directed towards refuting the claim that the Bible and biblical ethics were a central impetus to the abolition of slavery in the modern West (Slavery, p. 1); I make no such claim for the book of Job. Nevertheless, some of his criticisms of the ways in which scholars have minimized and excused slavery in biblical texts should be kept in mind.
Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), p. 13; emphasis original. Using comparative data from a very broad range of ancient and modern societies, Patterson identifies three constituent elements of slavery: violent coercion, natal alienation (i.e. social death), and complete dishonour (Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, pp. 1-14).
Bales, Trodd, and Williamson, Modern Slavery, p. 31.
Mendelsohn, Slavery in the Ancient Near East, pp. 121-23.
Ibid., pp. 1-33, 93-120; Westbrook, âSlave and Master,â pp. 1640-47. Patterson argues that, whether through direct violence (capture in war, kidnapping, punishment) or through desperation (debt, abandonment, self-enslavement), slavery always originated (or was thought of as originating) as a substitute for death (Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, pp. 5, 105-131).
Mendelsohn, Slavery in the Ancient Near East, p. 122.
Chirichigno, Debt-Slavery in Israel and the Ancient Near East, pp. 145-85. See also Lemche, âHebrew Slaveâ; Lemche, âManumission of Slavesâ; Tsevat, âThe Hebrew Slaveâ; Westbrook, âSlave and Masterâ; Carmichael, âThree Lawsâ; Hezser, Jewish Slavery in Antiquity. On the disparity between biblical materials and historical realities, it should be noted that Magdaleneâs examination of some recently available (though largely unpublished) documents from exiled Judeans in Babylonia shows that slavery was practised, but provides no evidence of special treatment for Hebrew slaves (Magdalene, âSlavery between Judah and Babylon,â pp. 113-34). Her observations suggest that it is tenuous at best to assume that the distinctive characteristics of the biblical slavery laws correspond to actual practises. However, they do reinforce the point that slavery was a familiar part of society throughout the ancient Near Eastern context. With regard to my discussion of the presentation of slavery in the book of Job, I make no assumption that the institution in view in Job conforms to the biblical slavery laws, but rather consider it in the context of the broader common features of ancient slavery.
Mendelsohn, Slavery in the Ancient Near East, pp. 111-12. There is very little in the way of evidence to help determine the proportion of slaves in the population at different times. There is one set of figures given for the returning exiles, which numbered 42,360 people in the assembly (×§××) returning from exile and 7,337 slaves (Ezra 2:64-65; Neh. 7:67-68). There is a resonance with Job 1:3 in this enumeration of people and property: âCare is taken to make plain that slaves were not included in the assembly; they come more into the category of property, like the animals in the next verseâ (H.G.M. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah [WBC, 16; Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1985], p. 38). It is not necessary to accept the accuracy of these figures to propose that they indicate that slaves formed a substantial minority in the post-exilic population. Dandamaev suggests that this figure may give some indication about the proportion of slaves in Babylonia at that time (Dandamaev, Slavery in Babylonia, p. 218). As Snell observes, âThe irony of a recreated Israel celebrating its freedom with the help of slaves was lost on the exilesâ (C. Daniel Snell, âSlavery in the Ancient Near East,â in Keith R. Bradley and Paul Cartledge (eds.), The Cambridge World History of Slavery; Volume 1: The Ancient Mediterranean World [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011], pp. 4-21 [18]).
I.M. Diakonoff, âThe Structure of Near Eastern Society Before the Middle of the Second Millennium B.C.,â Oikumene 3 (1982), pp. 7-100 (99).
David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1966), p. 63. Dandamaev likewise argues that even though chattel slavery was only one form among the many ways in which labour was economically exploited in Babylonia, as an institution it had a disproportionately great social and ideological influence (Dandamaev, Slavery in Babylonia, pp. 660-61).
Dandamaev, Slavery in Babylonia, pp. 74-75; I.M. Diakonoff, âSlave-Labour vs. Non-Slave Labour: The Problem of Definition,â in Marvin A. Powell (ed.), Labor in the Ancient Near East (American Oriental Series, 68; New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1987), pp. 1-3; Westbrook, âSlave and Master,â p. 1634. For example, Hammurabi calls the citizens under his rule his slaves (Codex Hammurabi § 129). Similarly in the Behistun inscription, Darius describes several officials, clearly high-ranking citizens who led battles on his behalf, as his slaves (L.W. King and R. ÂCampbell Thompson [eds.], The Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistûn in Persia: A New Collation of the Persian, Susian, and Babylonian Texts, with English Translations, etc [London: British Museum, 1907]).
Van der Ploeg, âSlavery in the Old Testament,â p. 85.
Norman C. Habel, The Book of Job: A Commentary (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1985), p. 87.
Carolyn S. Leeb, Away from the Fatherâs House: The Social Location of Naâar and Naâarah in Ancient Israel (JSOTSup, 301; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), p. 42.
Carolyn S. Leeb, Away from the Fatherâs House: The Social Location of Naâar and Naâarah in Ancient Israel (JSOTSup, 301; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), pp. 91-124.
Carolyn S. Leeb, Away from the Fatherâs House: The Social Location of Naâar and Naâarah in Ancient Israel (JSOTSup, 301; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), pp. 112-21. I disagree with Leebâs proposition that the simplest and most convincing explanation for the use of the term in 1:19 is that Jobâs children are not in view and are not harmed at all in the story (Away from the Fatherâs House, p. 117). The fact that Jobâs children are specifically mentioned as being in the house at 1:18, the fact that the messenger âaloneâ has escaped, and the description of Jobâs great grief (1:20) all suggest that Jobâs children have indeed been killed. However, her discussion of the possibly deliberate ambiguity of the verse and her insight into vulnerability as the defining characteristic of the × ×¢×¨ are nonetheless helpful.
See also Alfred Jepsen, âAmah und Schiphchah,â VT 8 (1958), pp. 293-97; Westbrook, âThe Female Slave,â pp. 214-38.
Marvin H. Pope, Job: Introduction, Translation and Notes (AB, 15; New York: Doubleday, 3rd edn, 1973), p. 201; David J.A. Clines, Job 21-37 (WBC, 18A; Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas Nelson, 2006), pp. 896, 912. There is scant reference to mining and mining technology in the Hebrew scriptures (only Job 28:1-11 speaks of mining directly, a foundry is mentioned in 1 Kgs 7:46, and the other literal and metaphorical references to refining and working metals and gems do not discuss the process of obtaining the raw materials). However, other ancient sources discuss the extremely difficult work of mining, usually carried out by slaves and criminals. For example, Strabo describes a mine worked by hundreds of slaves in desperate conditions, whose number is constantly diminished by accidents and disease from the noxious environment (Strabo, Geography, XII 3.40). Laufferâs study of silver mining in Attica details the extreme conditions for thousands of slaves there (Siegfried Lauffer, Die Bergwerkssklaven von Laureion [Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, 2nd edn, 1979]). Penal slavery in the mines was a feature of Roman criminal law (Joan Burdon, âSlavery as a Punishment in Roman Criminal Law,â in Léonie J. Archer [ed.], Slavery and Other Forms of Unfree Labour [History Workshop Series; London: Routledge, 1988], pp. 68-85). For more discussion of the social status of the miner in the ancient world, see R.J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology (Leiden: Brill, 1963), vol. 7, pp. 223-32. It is not a great leap to suggest that the miners in view in Job would most likely have been enslaved.
David Wolfers, Deep Things Out of Darkness: The Book of Job, Essays and a New English Translation (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1995), pp. 350, 496.
Heinrich Graetz, âLehrinhalt der âWeisheitâ in den biblischen Büchern,â Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums 36 (1887), pp. 289-99, 402-410, 544-49 (410); Dhorme, A Commentary on the Book of Job, pp. 401-402; Michael B. Dick, âJob XXVII 4: A New Translation,â VT 29 (1979), pp. 216-21; Clines, Job 21-37, pp. 892, 896-97. There are several other proposed emendations. Gordis renders ×ר as âcraterâ based on the Arabic jawrat (âdeep holeâ), thus âcleaves a channel from the craterâ (Gordis, The Book of Job, pp. 300, 305).
Following J.J.M. Roberts, âNiÅ¡kaḥtî⦠MillÄb, Ps 31:13,â VT 25 (1975), pp. 797-801 (800-801).
Dick, âJob XXVII 4,â p. 218. ××× II (âdangleâ) is proposed only here, and conjecturally Prov. 26:7 (HALOT, vol. 1, p. 223).
Gordis, The Book of Job, p. 348. Similarly, Mendelsohn reads rather a lot into 31:15, seeing Job as an advocate for radical equality: âThe first man in the Ancient Near East who raised his voice in a sweeping condemnation of slavery as a cruel and inhuman institution, irrespective of nationality and race, was the philosopher Job. His was a condemnation based on the moral concept of the inherent brotherhood of manâ (Mendelsohn, Slavery in the Ancient Near East, p. 123). Habelâs assessment is perhaps more measured, but he too sees a âbelief that a common Creator and a common human origin justifies regarding all mortals as equals with common rights before God and the courtâ (Habel, The Book of Job, p. 435). Richard Neville cites a number of other similarly exuberant commendations of Jobâs ethical perfection (âA Reassessment of the Radical Nature of Jobâs Ethic in Job xxxi 13-15,â VT 53 [2003], pp. 181-200 [181-82].)
Clines, Job 21-37, p. 1021. As he notes, God also creates animals, but that is not generally thought to give them equal rights with humans.
Carol A. Newsom, The Book of Job: A Contest of Moral Imaginations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 196.
Ellen van Wolde, Mr and Mrs Job (trans. John Bowden; London: SCM Press, 1997), p. 129.
Good, In Turns of Tempest, pp. 171, 387, 443 n. 22. I have yet to find any further comment on it either. Clines simply notes that not a word is said about the replacement of Jobâs lost servants (Job 38-42 [WBC, 18B; Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas Nelson, 2011], p. 1237).
| Insgesamt | Letzte 365 Tage | In den letzten 30 Tagen | |
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| Aufrufe von Kurzbeschreibungen | 363 | 69 | 17 |
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Drawing on Slavoj Žižekâs book Violence, I apply the concepts of subjective, systemic, and symbolic violence to an analysis of the imagery and ideology of slavery in the book of Job. Much of the rhetoric of the book of Job paints Job as the innocent victim of subjective violence. As part of this, Job deploys the imagery of slavery to portray both his suffering and his righteousness. Within the world of the story, however, Job is the principal beneficiary of the systemic violence of the institution of slavery. His rhetoric renders invisible the systemic violence of slavery, and displaces his own slaves from consideration as victims of violence. With regard to systemic violence, Job is revealed to be a perpetrator more than he is a victim.â©
| Insgesamt | Letzte 365 Tage | In den letzten 30 Tagen | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aufrufe von Kurzbeschreibungen | 363 | 69 | 17 |
| Gesamttextansichten | 70 | 6 | 0 |
| PDF-Downloads | 142 | 14 | 0 |