Effects of recent movement, starting distance and other risk factors on escape behaviour by two phrynosomatid lizards
In: BehaviourSearch for other papers by William E. Cooper Jr. in
Current site
Google Scholar
Search for other papers by Wade C. Sherbrooke in
Current site
Google Scholar
Costâbenefit models of escape behaviour predict that flight initiation distance (FID, predator-prey distance when the prey starts to flee from an approaching predator) increases as the cost of not fleeing (risk) increases. This prediction has been verified for many risk factors and prey species. The same predictions may apply to other aspects of escape, but testing has been much less extensive. For the lizards Callisaurus draconoides and Sceloporus magister, we tested several such predictions and examined the effect of a previously unstudied risk factor, recent movement by prey. Starting distance (predator-prey distance when approach begins) was unrelated to FID in C. draconoides, as in previously studied ambush foragers. Because movement increases probability of being detected, we predicted that FID would be greater for prey that had moved immediately before being approached than those that had been immobile. FID and distance fled (DF) were longer for lizards that had moved recently. In C. draconoides DF and probability of entering refuge were greater for the second of two approaches, as predicted from greater threat posed by a persistent predator. Callisaurus draconoides had shorter FID and shorter DF, and fewer entered refuge where lizards were habituated than unhabituated to human presence. In S. magister FID increased as distance to refuge increased, FID and DF were longer for fast than slow approaches; probability of fleeing and FID were larger for direct than indirect approach. Effects of these risk factors on FID are consistent across studies, but approach speed has affected DF in only half of studies, perhaps due to constraints by refuge entry and variable distance to refuge. Similarities in effects of risk factors across escape variables, types of predator-prey encounters, and latency to emerge from refuge suggest that similar risk assessment mechanism are used for all variables and settings.
Purchase
Buy instant access (PDF download and unlimited online access):
Institutional Login
Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials
Personal login
Log in with your brill.com account
-
Anderson R.A. (1993). An analysis of foraging in the lizard, Cnemidophorus tigris. â In: Biology of whiptail lizards (genus Cnemidophorus) ( Wright J.W., Vitt L.J., eds). Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, Norman, OK, p. 83-116.
-
Blumstein D.T. (2003). Flight-initiation distance in birds is dependent on intruder starting distance. â J. Wildl. Manage. 67: 852-857.
-
Blumstein D.T. (2010). Flush early and avoid the rush: a general rule of antipredator behaviour? â Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 21: 440-442.
-
Chamaillè-Jammes S., Blumstein D.T. (2012). A case for quantile regression in behavioral ecology: getting more out of flight initiation distance data. â Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 66: 985-992.
-
Cohen J. (1992). A power primer. â Psychol. Bull. 112: 155-159.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (1997a). Escape by a refuging prey, the broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps). â Can. J. Zool. 75: 943-947.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (1997b). Factors affecting risk and cost of escape by the broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps): predator speed, directness of approach, and female presence. â Herpetologica 53: 464-474.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (1997c). Threat factors affecting antipredatory behavior in the broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps): repeated approach, change in predator path, and predatorâs field of view. â Copeia: 613-619.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (1999). Tradeoffs between courtship, fighting, and antipredatory behavior by a lizard, Eumeces laticeps. â Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 47: 54-59.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2000). Tradeoffs between predation risk and feeding in a lizard, the broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps). â Behaviour 137: 1175-1189.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2003a). Risk factors affecting escape behaviour in the desert iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis: speed and directness of predator approach, degree of cover, direction of turning by a predator, and temperature. â Can. J. Zool. 81: 979-984.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2003b). Effect of risk on aspects of escape behavior by a lizard, Holbrookia propinqua, in relation to optimal escape theory. â Ethology 109: 617-626.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2005). When and how does starting distance affect flight initiation distance. â Can. J. Zool. 83: 1045-1050.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2006a). Dynamic risk assessment: prey rapidly adjust flight initiation distance to changes in predator approach speed. â Ethology 112: 858-864.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2006b). Risk factors affecting escape behaviour by Puerto Rican Anolis lizards. â Can. J. Zool. 84: 495-504.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2008a). Strong artifactual effect of starting distance on flight initiation distance in the actively foraging lizard Aspidoscelis exsanguis. â Herpetologica 64: 200-206.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2008b). Visual monitoring of predators: occurrence, cost and benefit for escape. â Anim. Behav. 76: 1365-1372.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2009a). Flight initiation distance decreases during social activity in lizards (Sceloporus virgatus). â Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 63: 1765-1771.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2009b). Optimal escape theory predicts escape behaviors beyond flight initiation distance: risk assessment and escape by striped plateau lizards Sceloporus virgatus. â Curr. Zool. 55: 123-131.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2009c). Fleeing and hiding under simultaneous risks and costs. â Behav. Ecol. 20: 665-671.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2009d). Theory successfully predicts hiding time: new data for the lizard Sceloporus virgatus and a review. â Behav. Ecol. 20: 585-592.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2010a). Economic escape. â In: Encyclopedia of animal behavior, Vol. 1 ( Breed M.D., Moore J., eds). Academic Press, London, p. 588-595.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2010b). Pursuit deterrence varies with predation risks affecting escape behaviour in the lizard Callisaurus draconoides. â Anim. Behav. 80: 249-256.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2010c). Risks associated with predator immobility, movement direction, and turn direction similarly affect pursuit-deterrent signaling and escape by zebra-tailed lizards (Callisaurus draconoides). â Ethology 116: 866-875.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2010d). Escape tactics and effects of perch height and habituation on flight initiation distance in two Jamaican anoles (Squamata: Polychrotidae). â Rev. Biol. Trop. 58: 1199-1209.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2011a). Influence of some potential predation risk factors and interaction between predation risk and cost of fleeing on escape by the lizard Sceloporus virgatus. â Ethology 117: 620-629.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2011b). Microhabitat use and choice of refuge in Sceloporus magister. â Herpetol. Rev. 42: 39-40.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr. (2012). Risk factors affecting escape behavior by the Jamaican lizard Anolis lineatopus (Polychrotidae, Squamata). â Carib. J. Sci. 46: 1-12.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Avalos A. (2010). Predation risk, escape and refuge use by mountain spiny lizards (Sceloporus jarrovii). â Amphibia-Reptilia 31: 363-373.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Frederick W.G. (2007a). Optimal flight initiation distance. â J. Theor. Biol. 244: 59-67.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Frederick W.G. (2007b). Optimal time to emerge from refuge. â Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 91: 375-382.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Frederick W.G. (2010). Predator lethality, optimal escape behavior, and autotomy. â Behav. Ecol. 21: 91-96.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Pérez-Mellado V. (2004). Tradeoffs between escape behavior and foraging opportunity by the Balearic lizard (Podarcis lilfordi). â Herpetologica 60: 321-324.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Sherbrooke W.C. (2010). Plesiomorphic escape decisions in cryptic horned lizards (Phrynosoma) having highly derived antipredatory defenses. â Ethology 116: 920-928.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Sherbrooke W.C. (2013). Risk and cost of immobility in the presence of an immobile predator: effects of latency to flee or to approach food or a potential mate. â Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., in press, DOI 10.1007/s00265-013-1477-x.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Whiting M.J. (2007). Universal optimization of flight initiation distance and habitat-driven variation in escape tactics in a Namibian lizard assemblage. â Ethology 113: 661-672.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Pérez-Mellado V., Baird T., Baird T.A., Caldwell J.P., Vitt L.J. (2003). Effects of risk, cost, and their interaction on optimal escape by nonrefuging Bonaire whiptail lizards, Cnemidophorus murinus. â Behav. Ecol. 14: 288-293.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Pérez-Mellado V., Hawlena D. (2006). Magnitude of food reward affects escape behavior and acceptable risk in Balearic lizards, Podarcis lilfordi. â Behav. Ecol. 17: 554-559.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Hawlena D., Pérez-Mellado V. (2009a). Interactive effect of starting distance and approach speed on escape behaviour challenges theory. â Behav. Ecol. 20: 542-546.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Hawlena D., Pérez-Mellado V. (2009b). Effects of predation risk factors on escape behavior by Balearic lizards (Podarcis lilfordi) in relation to optimal escape theory. â Amphibia-Reptilia 30: 99-110.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., Hawlena D., Pérez-Mellado V. (2010). Influence of risk on hiding time by Balearic lizards (Podarcis lilfordi): predator approach speed, directness, persistence, and proximity. â Herpetologica 66: 131-141.
-
Cooper W.E. Jr., López P., MartÃn J., Pérez-Mellado V. (2012). Latency to flee from an immobile predator: effects of risk and cost of immobility for the prey. â Behav. Ecol. 23: 790-797.
-
Dumont F., Pasquaretta C., Réale D., Bogliani G., Von Hardenberg A. (2012). Flight initiation distance and starting distance: biological effect or mathematical artefact. â Ethology 118: 1051-1062.
-
Edut S., Eilam D. (2004). Protean behavior under barn-owl attack: voles alternate between freezing and fleeing and spiny mice flee in alternating patterns. â Behav. Brain Res. 155: 207-216.
-
Hemmi J.M., Merkel T. (2009). High stimulus specificity characterizes anti-predator habituation under natural conditions. â Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. 276: 4381-4388.
-
Hunter J., Schmidt F. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: correcting error and bias in research findings. â Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
-
Majlálth I., Majláthova V. (2009). Escape behavior of the green lizard (Lacerta viridis) in the Slovak Karst. â Acta Ethol. 12: 115-120.
-
MartÃn J., López P. (1999). When to come out from a refuge: risk-sensitive and state-dependent decisions in an alpine lizard. â Behav. Ecol. 10: 487-492.
-
MartÃn J., López P. (2003). Changes in the escape responses of the lizard Acanthodactylus erythrurus under persistent predatory attacks. â Copeia: 408-413.
-
MartÃn J., López P., Cooper W.E. Jr. (2003a). Loss of mating opportunities influences refuge use in the Iberian rock lizard, Lacerta monticola. â Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 54: 505-510.
-
MartÃn J., López P., Cooper W.E. Jr. (2003b). When to come out from a refuge: balancing predation risk and foraging opportunities in an alpine lizard. â Ethology 109: 77-87.
-
MartÃn J., Luque-Larena J.J., López P. (2009). When to run from an ambush predator: balancing crypsis benefits with costs of fleeing in lizards. â Anim. Behav. 78: 1011-1018.
-
Rosenthal R., Rubin D.B. (2003). r equivalent: a simple effect size indicator. â Psychol. Methods 8: 492-496.
-
Stankowich T., Blumstein D.T. (2005). Fear in animals: a meta-analysis and review of risk assessment. â Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B: Biol. 272: 2627-2634.
-
Tanner W.W., Krogh J.E. (1975). Ecology of the zebra-tailed lizards Callisaurus draconoides at the Nevada test site. â Herpetologica 31: 302-316.
-
Ydenberg R.C., Dill L.M. (1986). The economics of fleeing from predators. â Adv. Stud. Behav. 16: 229-249.
| All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 493 | 79 | 8 |
| Full Text Views | 190 | 4 | 0 |
| PDF Views & Downloads | 56 | 9 | 0 |
Effects of recent movement, starting distance and other risk factors on escape behaviour by two phrynosomatid lizards
In: BehaviourSearch for other papers by William E. Cooper Jr. in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Wade C. Sherbrooke in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Costâbenefit models of escape behaviour predict that flight initiation distance (FID, predator-prey distance when the prey starts to flee from an approaching predator) increases as the cost of not fleeing (risk) increases. This prediction has been verified for many risk factors and prey species. The same predictions may apply to other aspects of escape, but testing has been much less extensive. For the lizards Callisaurus draconoides and Sceloporus magister, we tested several such predictions and examined the effect of a previously unstudied risk factor, recent movement by prey. Starting distance (predator-prey distance when approach begins) was unrelated to FID in C. draconoides, as in previously studied ambush foragers. Because movement increases probability of being detected, we predicted that FID would be greater for prey that had moved immediately before being approached than those that had been immobile. FID and distance fled (DF) were longer for lizards that had moved recently. In C. draconoides DF and probability of entering refuge were greater for the second of two approaches, as predicted from greater threat posed by a persistent predator. Callisaurus draconoides had shorter FID and shorter DF, and fewer entered refuge where lizards were habituated than unhabituated to human presence. In S. magister FID increased as distance to refuge increased, FID and DF were longer for fast than slow approaches; probability of fleeing and FID were larger for direct than indirect approach. Effects of these risk factors on FID are consistent across studies, but approach speed has affected DF in only half of studies, perhaps due to constraints by refuge entry and variable distance to refuge. Similarities in effects of risk factors across escape variables, types of predator-prey encounters, and latency to emerge from refuge suggest that similar risk assessment mechanism are used for all variables and settings.
| All Time | Past 365 days | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 493 | 79 | 8 |
| Full Text Views | 190 | 4 | 0 |
| PDF Views & Downloads | 56 | 9 | 0 |
