2.1 Binding of Venice, Biblioteca del Museo Correr, MS Cl. IV (Mariegole) 125, showing the fore-edge flap closed on the left cover. 2019 © Biblioteca Correr – Fondazione Musei Civici di Venezia 41
2.2 An example of a vacchetta contabile of a ship (Venice, Archivio di Stato, Bailo a Costantinopoli, b. 372). Su concessione del Ministero dei beni e delle attività culturali e del turismo – Archivio di Stato di Venezia, n. 2/2020 44
2.3 An example of the cedole used to authorize the selling of fish in Venice, with the paper-boards bent to protect the remaining halves of the forms (Venice, Archivio di Stato, Giustizia Vecchia, b. 41). Su concessione del Ministero dei beni e delle attività culturali e del turismo – Archivio di Stato di Venezia, n. 2/2020 46
2.4 Drawing of the process by which the cedole used to authorize the selling of fish were created, leaving narrow volumes made up of the other half of the forms. Drawing by author. CC BY-NC-SA 47
2.5 One of the volumes of the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana (MS Lat. VI 179 (=2824)) in which the gatherings were forced into a paper-board cover too small for them, suggesting covers could be pre-made. Su concessione del Ministero dei beni e delle attività culturali e del turismo – Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana. Divieto di riproduzione 50
3.1 Frankfurter Adler-&-‘F’ watermark (1562). Original and digitized-image with permission by: Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart, J340 (Wasserzeichensammlung Piccard), nr.161992 60
3.2 The Leuthold-Hildenbrand Dynasty 67
3.3 Distribution of Frankfurter ‘Adler’-watermarks, 1540–1621 (N=442). With permission by Wasserzeichen-Informationssystem/Googlemaps 71
3.4 Johann Jakob Eberspach, Portrait of Samuel Hildenbrand and Johann Berner (detail), 1741. With permission by Deutsche Nationalbibliothek: Deutsches Buch- und Schriftmuseum (Leipzig), inv. Bö-Bl/P/1248 75
3.5 Eberspach, Portrait of Samuel Hildenbrand (1741), detail. With permission by Deutsche Nationalbibliothek: Deutsches Buch- und Schriftmuseum (Leipzig), inv. Bö-Bl/P/1248 78
4.1 Watermark: Shield, crosier to left, letters ‘lile’ [Aristotle, Logica vetus (Alost: Johannes de Westfalia and Dirk Martens, 4 May 1474), fols. 1–10; Royal Library of Belgium, Inc A 2.343] 96
4.2 Watermark: Heart, crown, letters Ib [Angelus de Clavasio, Summa angelica de casibus conscientiae (Alost: Dirk Martens, 4 July 1490), fol. 7; The Hague, National Library of the Netherlands, 168 E 34; Source:
4.3 Abraham Ortelius, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Antwerp: Gillis Coppens van Diest, 1570), Galliae Regni Potentissimae (34 × 50 cm) [David Rumsey Map Collection,
5.1 Favario’s full-page preface to Pedro Fernández de Velasco, Constable of Castille and Duke of Frías. Valerio Máximo, Alcalá de Henares: Miguel de Eguía, 1529, leave 1v. Public Library of Soria. A-378(1). This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Public Library of Soria 116
5.2 Valerio Máximo, Alcalá de Henares: Miguel de Eguía, 1529. Title page. Public Library of Soria. A-378(1). This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Public Library of Soria 117
5.3 Bartholomaeus Anglicus, Libro de proprietatibus rerum en romance, Toledo: Gaspar de Ávila, 1529. Colophon. Historical Library of the Complutense University of Madrid. BH MED 22. This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Historical Library of the Complutense University of Madrid 119
5.4 Favario’s full-page preface to Diego de Ribera, Bishop of Segovia. Bartholomaeus Anglicus, Libro de proprietatibus rerum en romance, Toledo: Gaspar de Ávila, 1529. Leave 1v. Historical Library of the Complutense University of Madrid. BH MED 22. This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Historical Library of the Complutense University of Madrid 120
5.5 Signature of Gaspar Tomás, Juan Tomás Favario’s son. Provincial Historical Archive of Orense. Notarial Protocol of Gonzalo Placer, 1543–1551. Box 3558–01, f. 146v. This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Provincial Historical Archive of Orense 122
6.1 Paper export of Amsterdam to the indicated destinations, in reams 133
6.2 Hamburg’s paper import from Amsterdam, 1777–1787, in sheets. Revised 134
6.3 Frequency and ratio to ris of the standard measures of the parcels of paper passing through the Sound, 1635–1857 138
6.4 Volume of paper shipped eastward through the Sound according to ports of departure, 1634–1857, in reams 139
6.5 Volume of paper shipped eastward through the Sound according to ports of departure, except for Amsterdam and Bordeaux, 1801–1857, in reams 140
6.6 Volume of paper shipped eastward through the Sound according to ports of destination, 1634–1857, in reams 140
6.7 Volume of the paper shipped through the Sound from Amsterdam according to ports of destination, 1634–1857. In reams 144
6.8 Volume of the paper shipped through the Sound from Bordeaux according to ports of destination, 1637–1856. In reams 145
6.9 Volume of the paper shipped through the Sound from Karlshamn, Helsingborg and Malmö according to ports of destination, 1728–1857. In reams 146
7.1 Paper in Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Français MS 11205, Da Rold’s own data collection 153
7.2 Importation of paper from TNA, E122/71/8, E122/71/16, E122/71/17 159
7.3 London imports 1438–39 161
7.4 Southampton 1438–39 162
8.1 The Gulf of Finland in the Late Middle Ages (ca. 1374–1561). Map by Mikael Manninen & Tapio Salminen. The image is reproduced with the permission of the map makers 171
8.2 The lower part of the watermark of gothic letter ‘P’ in Tord Bonde’s missive from Raseborg in ca. 1389–95. Photograph by the author. The image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Tallinn City Archives 178
8.3 Raseborg in 2017, view from the North. The round gun tower in the southwest corner (back right) was built in ca. 1473–75. Photograph by the author. The image is reproduced with the permission of the photographer 185
8.4 A Basilisk (Dragon) in Otto Pogwisch’s missive on Tuesday before the Invention of the Holy Cross (5 May) 1433 (TLA.230.1.BC 28, 62). Photograph by the author. The image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Tallinn City Archives 191
8.5 Purchases of paper in the main accounts of the council of Reval from 1432 to 1461 (amount in sheets and price/sheet in schillings of Riga mark, 1 mark = 36 schillings). The image is reproduced with the permission of the author 194
9.1 Price of a ream of paper in Lyon between 1470 and 1525 (figure produced by the author) 203
9.2 Evolution of the price of paper compared to that of printed production in Lyon between 1470 and 1520 (figure produced by the author) 204
9.3 The four watermarks of the consulate’s papers (with the two versions of the C) (figure produced by the author) 214
10.1 This watermark depicts one of the earliest watermarks made in Wrocław: a bull’s head with eyes, and nostrils; above its head is a serpent twined around a rod ending in a letter ‘W’, with a crown on its top. (AGAD, ASK I. nr. 12. fol. 27). This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych w Warszawie (The Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw) 224
10.2 Fragment of a watermark depicts a bull’s head with a ring in its nose and a crosier protruding from its forehead (AGAD, ASK 1. nr. 21. fol. 194–205). This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych w Warszawie (The Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw) 225
10.3 List of the sources with a short description of each of these manuscripts which includes archival registration number, name of the owner, binding, size of the paper, number of folios, date of issuing and watermarks 229
10.4 Watermarks of the examined manuscripts 231
10.5 Watermark depicts the letter ‘W’ with a crown above and a fishtail-shaped addition below (appearing on 97 sheets of the manuscript AGAD, ASK 1. nr. 21.) 234
10.6 Watermark depicts a bull’s head with a rod ending in a Latin cross protruding from the top of its head, with a serpent twined around the rod (AGAD, ASK 1. nr. 21. fol. 281–291). This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych w Warszawie (The Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw) 235
10.7 Watermark depicts a male boar (AGAD, ASK 1. nr. 21. fol. 266–267). This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych w Warszawie (The Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw) 236
10.8 Watermark of an unidentified papermill depicts a bull’s head with a rod ending in a Latin cross protruding from the top of its head, with a serpent twined around the rod (AGAD, ASK 1. nr. 21. fol. 208–213). This image is reproduced with the kind permission of the Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych w Warszawie (The Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw) 237
11.1 Excerpt Amsterdam Chamber journal detailing paper purchases, 30 November 1716. This scan is reproduced with the kind permission of the National Archives, The Hague 254
11.2 Paper suppliers and paper volumes, Amsterdam Chamber, 1710–1720. Copyright owned by Frank Birkenholz 256
11.3 Paper materials and paper volumes, Amsterdam Chamber, 1710–1720. Copyright owned by Frank Birkenholz 260
11.4 Paper materials purchased by the VOC’s Amsterdam Chamber, 1710–1720. Copyright owned by Frank Birkenholz 262
11.5 Paper materials purchased from Matthijs Simons (and son), 1710–1720. Copyright owned by Frank Birkenholz 264
11.6 Paper materials purchased from Reynier Couterier, 1710–1720. Copyright owned by Frank Birkenholz 264
12.1 The STN’s Surviving Out-Letter Correspondence with Papetiers by Date. The STN’s Correspondence with Papetiers varied substantially from Month to Month 269
12.2 Folding a standard sheet 272
12.3 Format of the 44 books which have no available pagination or sheets data 272
12.4 Sheets of Paper used by Book Format in STN Editions. For Octavo and Duodecimo Books, the Mean seems a good Estimate. Mean (blue) and Median (red) marked by vertical lines) 273
12.5 Sheets of Paper required per Volume for STN Editions. The overall sheets per volume skews right 274
12.6 Median and mean sheets per volume by format (*rounded up to nearest integer, due to division by volume) 275
12.7 Total sheets required for the STN’s printing operations by year, as per our calculations 277
12.8 Total Estimated Paper required to Print the STN’s Editions, based on known and inferred Print Runs. Paper requirements varied considerably year on year 280
12.9 The STN’s 10 largest print-runs of 1782 281
12.10 STN Paper Requirements by Edition. A small Number of mostly Luxury Editions drove the STN’s Demand for Paper 282
12.11 How a Small Number of Editions Drove the STN’s Demand for Printing Paper 283
12.12 The STN’s top ten editions by volume of printing paper used 285
12.13 Stock Levels of its own Edition of the Journal et anecdotes intéressantes du voyage de Monsieur le comte de Falckenstein in the STN’s Warehouse. The line represents inferred stock take levels from printing and sales records, whereas points record stock levels recorded in the STN’s periodic stocktakes 286
12.14 Stock Turnover: Average Time taken to Sell Out Stock on 56 STN Editions 287
12.15 STN In-Letters from Papetiers. The STN mostly received letters from papetiers in the Franco-Swiss borderlands 293
12.16 STN Paper Exports by Sheets (in form of bound or unbound printed books). The STN exported paper far from its own region 294
12.17 Papetiers’ in-letters compared to sheets sold 295
12.18 Number of Papetiers in Correspondence with the STN Annualised by Date of First and Last In-Letters. The STN’s Paper Supply Network grew until 1777–1779 296
12.19 Mean Distance from Neuchâtel of STN’s Active Papetier Correspondents Annualised by Date of First and Last In-Letters. As the STN’s Supply Network grew, so did the Average Distance of Papetiers from Neuchâtel 297
12.20 Destinations for STN Out-Letters to Papetiers, 1770–1771. The STN’s Supplier Network appears highly concentrated in the Local Area 297
12.21 Destinations for STN Out-Letters to Papetiers, 1776–1779. The Supply Network has grown less dependent on Local Suppliers, with growth around Lyon and expansion to new centres to the North-East 298
13.1 Reykjavík, National Archives of Iceland, Bps B VIII 2, pp. 50–51. © National Archives of Iceland with friendly permission 307
13.2 Reykjavík, The National and University Library of Iceland, ‘Halldóra’. Biblia Þad Er/ Øll Heilóg Ritning/vtlógd a Norrænu. Med Formalum Doct. Martini. Lutheri. Prentad a Holum/Af Jone Jons Syne M D LXXXIIII. (Hólar: Jón Jónsson, 1584), Old Testament, p. E3 recto. Unidentified watermark. © Silvia Hufnagel 309
13.3 Reykjavík, The National and University Library of Iceland, ‘Halldóra’. Biblia Þad Er/ Øll Heilóg Ritning/vtlógd a Norrænu. Med Formalum Doct. Martini. Lutheri. Prentad a Holum/Af Jone Jons Syne M D LXXXIIII. (Hólar: Jón Jónsson, 1584), Old Testament, p. E1 recto. Watermark VE with crown. © Silvia Hufnagel 310
13.4 Bishop Guðbrandur Þorláksson’s sailing route from Copenhagen to Iceland in 1571. © Silvia Hufnagel 319
13.5 Delivering the post and goods with packhorses. Iceland, 1909, photographer Magnús Ólafsson 321
13.6 Drawing of an Icelandic packsaddle. © Bryndís Björgvínsdóttir with friendly permission 321
13.7 Map of Skagafjörður. © Silvia Hufnagel 322
14.1 Depiction of a paper or book shop. The illustration is made by Cornelis van Noorde probably in the 1760s. See also:
14.2 A ream of paper as it was delivered to customers. Image courtesy of Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag 333
14.3 View of a typical chemical work place in Amsterdam, ca. 1800. Image courtesy of Stadsarchief Amsterdam, 010097016865 338
14.4 Paper made of the wood of mulberry trees which were grown in Southern Europe, the West Indies and other colonial areas. According to the Amsterdam chemist-apothecary Kasteleyn mulberry wood allowed paper makers to produce white writing paper. The mulberry paper depicted here can be found in: J.C. Schäffer, Proefnemingen en monsterbladen om papier te maaken zonder lompen (Amsterdam: J.C. Sepp, 1770), vol. 2. Image courtesy of Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag 339
15.1 Misprinted sheets of Dove 1629, removed from an unidentified binding along with misprinted sheets from Pond 1629. Huntington Library, 479511. Reproduced by permission of the Huntington Library, San Marino, California 349
15.2 A stab-stitched waste paper wrapper comprising of an unsold sheet from Martin Finch, Animadversions Upon Sir Henry Vanes Book (London: for Joseph Barber, 1656). Plume Pamphlet 699. Reproduced by permission of the Plume Library, Maldon, Essex 351
15.3 An example of recovered waste paper from a sixteenth-century edition of Virgil’s Georgics, used as endleaves. Cosin O.5.13. Reproduced by permission of Durham University Library 352
15.4 Detail of folio pages used as endleaves, most likely recovered from a bound edition of Lucanus’ Pharsalia (Venice: Bartholomaeus de Zanis for Octavianus Scotus, 1492). Harry Ransom Center, DA 28 W37. Reproduced by permission of the Harry Ransom Center 353
15.5 Unsold almanac waste (Jeffereys 1635) used as guards shortly after it was printed. Bamburgh L.5.19. Reproduced by permission of Lord Crewe’s Charity and of Durham University Library 354
15.6 A shop’s accounts used as endleaves in a mid-seventeenth-century binding. Harry Ransom Center, BV 4817 B45 1657. Reproduced by permission of the Harry Ransom Center 364