Index
Alo Chondze
, 91n4
Amdo: administrative divisions of
75–76; Long March in, 11; pastoral areas of, 257, 259–61, 269; PRC policy towards, 75–80; and Qinghai, 75, 256; radicalization in, 256–62, 265, 269; revolts in, 30n111, 76–79, 256, 258, 259, 261, 262; and Sichuan, 75, 256; and Xikang, 75, 88, 202n222.
Yushu
Anti-Rightist Movement
399
Autonomous Region of Tibet
1, 22n68, 264, 400; Preparatory Committee for, 36n140, 181n70, 194, 211–12, 294n147, 297, 371n304; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 307
autonomy, regional
11, 18n50, 21, 68, 87; in Chamdo, 202–4, 207–8, 209; and division of Tibet, 192, 252; and first offensive, 44, 45; in Kham, 84, 86; in negotiations, 9, 35, 38, 235, 244, 251, 273; and radicalization, 261; in Ten-point Plan, 50, 86n70.
Xikang Autonomous Region
Bajpai, Girija Shankar
152n251, 166, 227, 231, 311
Batang
24, 30, 83, 87, 97, 198, 331; 18th Army in, 53, 84, 140; and battle of Chamdo, 56, 123, 124, 128, 138, 141, 142, 143
Bhutan
193
Bogdo Khan
343, 344
Bopa (bod-pa) Republic (Kanze)
11–12, 34n131, 83, 84, 112n160
Britain (United Kingdom): and battle of Chamdo, 166; and Dalai Lama
219, 226, 227; and expulsion of Chinese mission, 43, 95; and negotiations, 108, 235, 237, 238, 246; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 20, 21, 23, 73; support for Tibet from, 23, 98–105, 106, 120, 320; and Ten-point Plan, 52, 64; Tibetan relations with, 13, 224, 225.
imperialists
Buddhism
13, 20, 120, 398; and CCP, 343–44; protection of, 9, 33, 45, 46, 226; and Ten-point Plan, 48, 50
Bull, Geofrey
112n162, 139–42, 157n283, 161, 162n322
cadres, CCP: Han
199, 203, 205, 269, 333, 335–36, 367, 371, 399; and radicalization, 205, 263, 264, 269, 399; Tibetan, 16, 183, 193, 198, 203, 261, 335
“campaign to suppress counterrevolutionaries”
78, 204–9, 256–59, 266, 267, 269, 332, 336, 346
Chamdo, battle of (October 1950)
5, 122–70, 202; and 18th Army, 4, 122, 124, 128–52, 397; air support for, 61, 128; atrocities in, 58n278, 134, 138; casualties in, 122, 130–39, 143–49, 152, 157–58, 160–64, 313, 396, 397; conclusion of 144–52; continued resistance after, 152–56, 253; description of, 128–44; encirclement strategy in, 122–24, 129, 135; in extremis victory in, xiv, 4, 122, 253, 396, 397; and ideology, 396, 397; information concerning, 164–68; and Mao, 4, 60, 61, 64, 67, 69, 70, 71, 123, 125, 152, 213; and negotiations, xiii, xiv, 50, 62, 64, 67, 69, 71, 72, 74, 220; and Ngabö, 124n9, 134, 145, 146, 216–17, 252, 346; numbers of troops in, 125–28; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 339, 342; preparations for, 56, 60–73, 87; prisoners from, 161, 162, 163n331, 198, 199, 223, 224; and Southwest Bureau, 5, 60–62, 65, 70–71, 73, 124n10, 128, 133, 144, 147, 150–52, 164; and Tibetan government, xiv, 123–24, 167, 213
Chamdo District: administration of
185–86, 209–12; as autonomous region, 202–4, 207–8, 209; bandits in, 177–78; CCP Working Committee in, 67, 68, 179, 182, 207, 208–9, 232, 233, 247, 267; delegation from, 233, 234–35, 272, 276; and division of Tibet, 191, 192, 252; economy of, 185, 198, 204, 206; 18th Army in, 4, 13, 333, 361, 362; “elections” in, 181–86; famine within PLA in, 186–90; and first offensive, 30, 31, 40; local population in, 174–78; and negotiations, 38, 109, 171, 217–23, 225, 229–33, 238, 243, 247, 248, 275; new school in, 183, 184, 186; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 21–22, 29; Preparatory Committee of the People’s Liberation Committee of, 217; radicalization in, 178, 204–9, 256, 264, 265, 269, 332, 398; roads in, 177, 185, 187; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 208–10, 307, 347, 351–55; supply problems in, 173–74; and Xikang Autonomous Region, 80, 89, 171–72
Chamdo District of Xikang Province, People’s Liberation Committee of
172, 181–86
Chamdo District People’s Liberation Committee of the PRC
184–85, 189–90, 202, 206–11, 267, 297
Che Jigme
70, 193, 292n135, 390
Chen Jingbo
159, 335, 341n142, 389n404
Chen Mingyi
200
Chen Yun
302n194
Chen Ziyi
133
Chen Zizhi
127
Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi)
xxiv, 7, 25n77, 32
Chinese language
105, 183, 186, 303
Chi Yurui
324
class struggle
xvi, xvii, 10, 20, 55, 60, 86, 179, 196
Cold War
105, 179, 205, 320, 394–95
Common Program
1, 45, 76, 279
corvée labor (‘u-lag) system
37–38, 184, 196
Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
xvii, 18n49, 19n54, 47n212, 172n9, 316
currency, Tibetan
72, 85, 179, 183, 196, 286, 287
Dagyab Rinpoche
185, 186
Dalai Lama (13th)
9, 37, 138, 222n67, 224, 299n174, 301, 343–44
Dalai Lama (14th)
91, 185n95; and Administrative and Military Committee, 294, 295, 296; and division of Tibet, 191n146, 192, 193, 194, 202; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 381, 391; fear of flight of, 4, 180n65, 211, 213, 217, 218, 221–22, 226n96, 232, 233, 235, 247, 250, 252, 253, 272, 279, 282, 305–6, 308–9, 311, 312, 317, 331, 341; and first offensive, 32, 33, 34, 37, 44, 46; flight to India of, 33n127, 153, 214, 219–20, 221, 226, 227, 244–45, 247n213, 320, 330n72, 359n235; and foreign powers, 219, 226, 227, 247n213; and GMD, 94, 215; group of, 21, 33, 71, 193, 199, 208, 209, 212; letters from, 222–25, 229; and Mao Zedong, 223, 226n96, 317, 318, 320, 321, 345n157, 348, 367; and negotiations, 36, 110, 115, 219, 229–31, 235–38, 242, 245–48, 250, 251, 276, 277n45; and Ngabö, 220, 221, 343–45; and oracles, 213–14, 215; and Panchen Lama, 227n102, 280, 291, 292, 297–302, 376–77, 387–88; on PLA, 170n381, 223; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 21, 23, 24; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 341–42; power of, 94n21, 213–16, 229, 231; return to Lhasa of, 208, 318–20, 326–28, 334; in secret agreements, 286, 287, 288, 289–90; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 286–90, 303–6, 308, 310, 317, 318, 351, 353–55, 358, 359, 372; and Ten-point Plan, 48, 50, 51, 52, 55; threats to, 153, 169n376, 239, 240, 259; and Tibetan independence, 99n52, 102, 103, 104, 120; in Yadong, 180n65, 215, 223, 225–28, 229, 241, 273, 331; and Zhang Guohua, 366, 367–68; and Zhang Jingwu, 317–28, 331, 345n157, 348–49, 368, 387
Democratic League of the Youth of Eastern Tibet
85–86, 87
Dengko
111, 123; 18th Army in, 56, 57–58, 174; battle at, 62, 63, 110, 138, 158
Deng Xiaoping
5, 91, 396; and Administrative and Military Committee, 294, 296; and battle of Chamdo, 60, 61, 66, 72, 122, 129n43, 152; and Chamdo District, 87, 177, 180, 189, 200, 204, 206; and Dalai Lama, 226; and division of Tibet, 202n223; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 377; and first offensive, 33, 35, 39, 41, 47; and gradualist policy, xx, 80, 83–84, 180; and Khampas, 68n340, 87; and negotiations, 109, 110, 232, 251, 252; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 18–23, 25, 28–29; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 333, 339, 341; and Preparatory Committee, 212n284; and radicalization, 206, 208, 263, 265, 266, 269; on revolts, 82, 268; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 35, 303, 313, 351, 371; and Ten-point Plan, 35, 47–60, 90, 314, 398; on treatment of prisoners, 156–57; and Xikang, 84, 85–86, 88, 89, 90; and Zhang Jingwu, 328
Derge
174, 182, 189; kingdom of, 138; PLA at, 68–69, 84; and preparations for Chamdo, 68, 69, 159
Dharamasala government-in-exile
91, 161, 162, 218, 274, 287
elites, Tibetan: and battle of Chamdo
60, 68, 72; in Chamdo, 167–68, 175, 177, 186, 188–90, 205, 206, 209; cooperation of, xxi, xxiii, xxiv, 80–81, 90, 175, 179; and Dalai Lama, 213; and expulsion of GMD, 94, 95; and first offensive, 32, 37, 44; and Geda, 112–13; and gradualist policy, xv, xvi, 12, 79, 85, 86, 90, 183, 397; in Kham, 175, 198; and Mao Zedong, 81, 111, 176; and negotiations, xx–xxi, 167–68, 219; and PLA, 82–83, 118, 159–60, 203, 218n39; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 338–39, 341, 343, 397; and radicalization, 47n210, 90, 205, 206, 257, 260, 262–65; reaction to Chinese by, 91–121; recruitment of, 53, 157; and resistance, 52–53, 80, 214; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 343, 359; and spring offensive, 197, 198; and surrender, 319, 320; and Ten-point Plan, 49; and Wangyal, 159, 175n32; and Zhang Jingwu, 325, 327
Fan Ming (Hao Keyong)
16, 36n141, 76n5, 151n235, 172n9, 195, 368n289; casualties in expedition of, 383–89; and division of Tibet, 191n147, 194; expedition to Lhasa of, 317, 361, 373–92; and ideology, 396; and negotiations, 36, 278, 280, 284, 291n131, 292, 293; and PLA advance into Tibet, 334, 337; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 308, 375, 376, 381, 385; and Southwest Bureau, 327, 374, 376–81, 391; vs. Zhang Guohua, 328n59, 373n315
Ford, Robert W.
109, 129n43, 180n64; and battle of Chamdo, 123, 124n9, 126, 133n78, 135, 144–47, 150, 151, 165, 167; capture of, 139n125, 161, 162n322, 281; charges against, 179, 183; and Geda, 112–17, 157, 183; on guerilla warfare, 105n101, 169; and Kesang Wangdu, 138; and radio, 57, 124n9, 130; on Tibetan Army, 170n381
Fox, Reginald
100, 104, 123n8, 169, 322, 323
France
95, 165, 267
Gansu
1, 16, 34, 38, 75, 76, 90, 256, 354; radicalization in, 256, 259.
Amdo
Geda
28, 52, 81, 86, 87, 121; death of, 111–17, 157, 183; and first offensive, 34, 44, 47
GMD (Guomindang): and CCP
92–97, 101, 102, 307, 324, 326, 333, 395; and CCP plans for occupation of Tibet, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26; and Dalai Lama, 94, 215; defeat of, xv, xvi–xvii, 99; expulsion from Tibet of, 14, 43–44, 92–97, 98, 123n8, 395; and first offensive, 29, 37, 40; influence of, 78, 103, 207, 217; and minorities, 11, 75n1, 280, 292; and Panchen Lama, 20–21, 291, 293, 298; vs. PLA, 30n111, 82, 203, 267; road building by, 199; on Seventeen-Point Agreement, 316; spies of, 36, 45, 89, 96n33, 205; Tibetan policy of, 7–9, 180, 198, 225; Tibetan support for, 34n132; and Tibetan territory, xiii, xx, 2, 8, 80
Goldstein, Melvyn
6, 18n50, 156, 215, 218, 236, 394n6; on battle of Chamdo, 126, 146, 152n251; on Dalai Lama, 214, 344, 372n313; on Dengko, 57, 58; on final negotiations, 345n158, 349n178, 350n181, 351n184, 357nn219–20; on PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 340n138; on secret agreements, 286, 287; on Seventeen-Point Agreement, 270–71, 352n195
gradualist policy: in Amdo
76, 77; and delayed occupation, 65, 74; and Deng Xiaoping, xx, 21, 49, 80, 83–84, 180; in Kham, 80; vs. land reform, 77, 81, 84, 255; and Mao, xi–xii, 1n1, 3, 12, 49, 74, 77, 350n181, 399–400; and Northwest Bureau, 78, 81; in Qinghai, 78–79, 84; and Southwest Bureau, 21, 74, 81, 180, 350n181, 400; and Ten-point Plan, 49, 83, 90; and Tibetan elites, xv, xvi, 12, 79, 85, 86, 90, 183, 397; in Xikang, 90
Gramsci, Antonio
xxi
Great Leap Forward
256
guerrilla warfare
56, 63, 72, 177, 393; and battle of Chamdo, 123, 127, 128; vs. large-scale war, xviii, xxii, xixn5; recommendations for, 99, 104, 168–69, 170n381
Guillermaz, Jacques
xxiii
Gyalo Thondup
25, 109n136, 244n192
Gyentsen Phuntsok
145n182, 148, 190, 218, 220, 225–26, 234n137, 250
Han chauvinism
7, 76n6, 89, 192, 196, 262, 310, 333
Han ethnic group
8, 11, 51, 75, 82, 207; in Amdo, 76; in Chamdo, 173, 175, 209, 210; and expulsion of GMD, 96; in Kham, 81, 84; and People’s Liberation Committee, 181, 186; in PLA, 87, 196; and radicalization, 178, 179, 255, 257, 262, 265
Hao Guiyao
245n198
Harrer, Heinrich
100, 115, 214, 244, 319n13
hegemony, strategy of
xv, xvi–xviii, xx, xxi, 263, xixn6
He Long
40, 59n280, 156n279, 167n368; and battle of Chamdo 62–63, 64, 66, 125, 129n43; and Chamdo District, 180, 188; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 18, 20, 21, 27; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 351
Henderson, Loy W.
98, 126n27, 152n251, 166, 227, 244, 311
Hong Kong
95, 315; possible negotiations in, 43, 47–48, 67, 107–8
Huang Ke
163n331
Huang Musong
9, 50
Hu Chi-hsi
xxiii
Hui ethnic group
19n55, 76, 78n16, 88, 173, 257
Hundred Flowers Movement
399
Hu Qiaomu
71
imperialists: Anglo-American
xv, 13, 14, 27, 46, 48, 73, 92, 98, 100, 102, 179, 205, 206–7; in Chamdo, 176–77, 183, 205, 206–7; denial of presence of, 111, 224; and division of Tibet, 193; and first offensive, 31, 44, 46; and Geda, 112, 113, 114; as justification for occupation, 13, 98, 102, 111, 195, 332, 336; and negotiations, 105n101, 217, 282; and Panchen Lama, 298–99; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 14, 15, 17, 27, 28; vs. self-determination, 10–11; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 304, 355, 359; and Ten-point Plan, 48, 51, 55, 56, 180; as threat, xxi, 73, 282, 395; and Tibetan expulsion of GMD, 92; and united front, xvii; Zhou Enlai on, 15, 44
independence, Tibetan: assertions of
100–102, 104–5; and Dalai Lama, 99n52, 102, 103, 104, 120; and expulsion of GMD, 92n10, 96, 97; foreign support for, 98n43, 103, 106; in negotiations, 111, 219, 222, 223
Independence Party
219, 222
India: and battle of Chamdo
62, 64, 67, 69, 165, 166, 167; borders of, 93, 180n65, 249, 273, 276, 283, 285n92, 400; Chinese ambassador to, 67, 69, 73, 93, 165, 194n166, 228, 229, 230–33, 242, 247, 272, 292; Chinese embassy in, 108, 228n111, 229, 232, 234, 237, 244n190, 248; Dalai Lama’s flight to, 33n127, 153, 214, 219–20, 221, 226, 227, 244–45, 247n213, 320, 330n72, 359n235; delegation in, 44, 103, 251, 276, 284, 314; and expulsion of GMD, 93, 94, 95, 96; and negotiations, 67, 223, 231, 233, 237, 238, 242–46, 247, 272–73, 274, 278n46, 281, 282; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 16–17, 20, 24, 25, 73, 193; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 311, 313, 349; supplies from, 337, 370; support for Tibet from, 23, 65, 98–107, 120–21, 126, 170n381, 180–81, 320, 341
Jambey Gyatso
38n152, 60n291, 63n311, 87, 128, 290, 308, 341n142; on Chamdo famine within the PLA, 187, 189; on Dalai Lama, 343, 344
Jamyang Bomo
182, 185, 189
Japan
xv, 8, 28
Jiang Qing
172n9
Jinmen, battle of
xv
Ji Youquan
58, 214
Kangding
82, 85, 87–88, 89, 131, 172, 251, 266
Kangxi, Emperor
335n103
Kanze
156, 158, 198; 18th Army in, 30, 31, 34, 41, 83, 110, 113–14, 173; airport at, 199, 201, 329; and battle of Chamdo, 56, 64–68, 123, 124, 145; Bopa Republic in, 12, 83, 112n160; famine within the PLA in, 186, 187, 188, 189; and first offensive, 31, 40; road to, 26, 40, 62, 128, 136, 173–74
Kashag (Tibetan governing council): and battle of Chamdo
66, 146, 165, 167, 168; and Chamdo District, 210; and Chinese threat, 15, 99–100, 103, 110, 111; and continued resistance, 153, 154–55; and Dalai Lama, 36, 103, 214, 227; and donations to beggars, 360; and expulsion of GMD, 92, 93, 95–97, 98; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 389–90; five-point plan of, 222–25, 237, 251n232, 273–75, 277, 279; and foreign support, 101, 103, 104; and Geda, 114–15; in Lhasa (January-August 1951), 5, 216, 236–38, 243, 245–46, 250, 280, 324n37; and negotiations, 36, 109, 117–19, 219, 220, 221, 226, 228–31, 234–35, 248, 249, 250, 252; and Ngabö, 216, 217, 218, 220–22, 332, 337; and PLA in Lhasa, 326, 365; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 321, 331, 350, 351, 353, 356, 357, 372, 392; and supply problems, 369–70
Kashag (Tibetan governing council; in Yadong)
5, 236–38, 241, 242–43, 245–46; delegation from, 312, 313–14; and Kashag of Lhasa, 5, 324n37; and negotiations, 273, 277, 283–84, 285, 292, 293; and Panchen Lama, 293, 298–302, 311; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 270–71, 295, 302n191, 303, 304–5, 310, 322–23
Kesang Wangdu (9th Depön)
118, 140, 141, 169, 182, 185, 210; defection of, 138–39, 161, 162
Kham
80–90; administrative divisions of, 80; autonomy in, 84, 86; delegations from, 34, 217; division of, 38, 75, 202n222; economic conditions in, 85–86, 186; elites in, 175, 198, 209; Long March in, 11; and negotiations, 38, 274; pastoral areas of, 259, 269; PLA in, 20, 40, 52, 80, 83, 131, 186, 188n116, 192, 224, 264; radicalization in, 81–82, 259, 262–69; resistance in, 30n111, 52–53, 148; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 347; and Xikang, 8, 80, 88, 89, 172, 262
Khampas: and battle of Chamdo
131, 148; casualties among, 163n337; and Kesang Wangdu, 128–39; recruitment of, 68n340, 87, 126, 127, 128
Kheme Sonam Wangdu
278, 291n133, 346, 352
Khencung Lobsang Tsewang
103, 104
Khunchung Sonam Gyatso
175
Korea
362; campaigns to support, 256, 265, 266, 269, 295
Koreans
255
Korean War
113, 170n381, 183, 189, 319, 336; donations for, 257–58, 259; and radicalization, 178–81, 183, 257
Kunlun Mountains
43
land reform
xxi, 1, 323n36; vs. gradualist policy, 77, 81, 84, 255; and PLA rules of conduct, 72, 196; and radicalization, 78, 178, 255–56, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267, 269
Leninist ideology
xvi, xvii, xix–xx, 8; on minorities, 9–10; and Tibetan policy, 1, 2, 7, 394–401; vocabulary of, 315, 353
Le Yuhong
317n1, 324, 326; on Dalai Lama, 343, 344; and negotiations, 224, 225, 232, 251, 272, 274, 278, 321, 342, 347–48, 354; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 339–40, 341; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 311, 322, 345n158, 346, 347, 349, 352, 353, 356, 357, 368; and supply problems, 366, 367, 368, 369, 373
Lhalu Tsewang Dorje
24, 59, 95n32, 99, 190n133, 324; and battle of Chamdo, 66, 123, 124n9, 125; and continued resistance, 152–56; and Dalai Lama, 221, 226; and Geda, 112–17, 121; and Kesang Wangdu, 138, 139; and negotiations, 52, 57n268, 66, 110–11, 118, 119, 219; and radio, 110, 124n9; replacement of, 109–10; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 350, 352, 354, 371–72
Lhamo Tsering
82n43
Lhasa: CCP committee for
360; Chinese representatives in, 9, 14, 33, 43–44, 52, 282; Dalai Lama’s return to, 208, 318–20, 326–28, 334; donations to beggars in, 356, 360; Fan Ming’s expedition to, 317, 361, 373–92; Kashag in (January-August 1951), 5, 216, 236–38, 243, 245–46, 250, 280, 324n37; occupation of, 2, 4, 15, 22, 63, 64, 65, 66, 70; Panchen Lama’s arrival in, 325, 344; PLA advance on, 279, 280, 306, 313–14, 344, 356, 357; plans to advance on, 4, 23, 30, 31, 34, 40, 56, 63, 64, 160, 171, 175; PLA vanguard’s expedition to, 328–43, 347, 348n172, 350n181, 359, 361, 364n267, 379, 397; proposed Chinese representative in, 274, 275, 276; supply problems in, 188, 366–70
Lhawutara Thubden Dendar
92, 278, 279, 284, 295, 305, 322, 345
Lho Dzong
118, 123, 134, 152n251, 153n256
Liao Li
146
Liao Zhigao
87
Li Disan
239–42
Li Guozhu
168n371
Li Jue
17n44, 58, 70, 142, 153, 158, 168–69, 170n381, 189, 191, 211
Litang region
61, 67, 187; incident in (August 1950), 82–83, 86
Liu Bocheng
18, 25, 59n280, 156n279, 180, 367, 396; and Administrative and Military Committee, 294, 296; and battle of Chamdo, 62–63, 64, 67n335, 122, 125, 145n177, 152; and first offensive, 32, 35; and Kesang Wangdu, 142–43; on timing of invasion, 167n368
Liu Geping
262
Liu Guangrun
136
Liu Shaoqi
5, 22n70, 56n263, 87, 302n194; and first offensive, 30, 33, 41, 45; on gradualist policy, 81; and negotiations, 246, 247, 248, 249, 285, 297; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 14, 17, 19, 20, 23, 26; and radicalization, 255, 258, 260
Liu Xiaoyuan
14n27, 394–95
Li Weihan
11n11, 47, 194, 239, 320n18; and Administrative and Military Committee, 294, 295, 296; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 375, 376, 388; and negotiations, 272, 273, 278–85, 290, 292, 297–98; and Panchen Lama, 299, 300; and radicalization, 262; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 270–71, 302, 304, 305, 316
Lobsang Jigmé
214n10
Lobsang Samten
318, 341
Lobsang Tashi
222
Long March: abuses during
12, 38, 41; and Bopa Republic, 83, 84, 112n160; and minorities, 11–12; and Tibetan elites, 34n131, 80, 83, 88; in Tibetan region, xxii, 12, 20, 22n68, 28, 34n131, 38, 41, 43, 83, 187, 192, 192n155, 239, 330, 362
Lukhangwa
95n32, 109, 222, 325, 397; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 339–40, 342, 343; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 349, 357
Ma Bufang
19, 78, 79, 97–98n41, 99, 110; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 382, 386
Macdonald, David
103n89
Manchuria
xx, 8
Mao Zedong
5; and Administrative and Military Committee, 296, 297; and battle of Chamdo, 4, 60, 61, 64, 67, 69, 70, 71, 123, 125, 152, 165, 213; and casualties, 59n280; and Chamdo District, 188, 189, 190, 206, 210–12; and Dalai Lama, 223, 226n96, 317, 318, 320, 321, 345n157, 348, 367; and division of Tibet, 87, 191, 192, 194, 195, 399; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 377, 378, 381, 388; and first offensive, 31, 37, 39; and gradualist policy, xi–xii, 1n1, 3, 12, 49, 74, 77, 350n181, 399–400; hegemony strategy of, xv, xvi–xviii, xx, xxi, xxiv; and imperialist threat, 73, 395; “Instructions for the Entry of the PLA into Tibet,” 329–30; and Kesang Wangdu, 142–43; and negotiations, 108, 213, 228, 243, 246, 247, 248, 249, 279, 285; and Panchen Lama, 16, 101–2, 112, 280, 325n44; and PLA vanguard, 333, 334, 338, 339, 362; and pre-1949 Tibetan question, 10–12; and radicalization, 206, 255, 261, 262, 263, 267; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 302, 305–10, 316, 333, 356, 358, 359; and Ten-point Plan, 49, 180; and threat of PLA, 239, 240, 241, 242; Tibetan appeals to, 100–101; and Tibetan elites, 81, 111, 176; and Tibetan resistance, 78, 79, 196; and urgency of occupation, 2, 3, 15–18, 115, 168, 170, 253; and Zhang Jingwu, 317, 321, 327
Mao Zedong Thought
xvii, xviii, xxiv, 2, 77, 270, 394.
Leninist ideology
Maring
xvi–xvii
Marxism-Leninism
xvii, 10, 270, 394.
Leninist ideology
McNeill, William H.
xxiii
Miao ethnic group
265
Miao Piyi
139, 142, 143, 145n177
Mikoyan, Anastas
13
militias: Khampa
126, 127, 128; local CCP, 256–57; Tibetan, 72, 81, 99, 140, 154, 195, 196
Mimang Tsongdu movement
91, 262n47
minorities: division of
75, 190–95, 255, 400; and GMD, 11, 75n1, 280, 292; and Han chauvinism, 7, 76n6, 89, 192, 196, 262, 310, 333; Leninism on, 9–10; and Long March, 11–12; and nationalism, 7–8, 12, 76n6; PRC policy towards, 1–2, 76, 80, 315; Qing policy towards, 176; and radicalization, 257, 265; in Seventeen-Point Agreement, 304, 310
monasteries: and Dalai Lama
214; destruction of, 11, 76, 217; donations to, 326, 327, 356, 369n294; and gradualist policy, 180, 399; income of, 208; and radicalization, 257, 260, 261; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 346, 356; and supply problems, 368–69; taxation of, 85; and Ten-point Plan, 37, 48.
Three Monastic Seats
Mongolia
xx, 8, 10, 192, 207, 343
Mongolians
76n6, 255
Mucha, Depön
111, 129–30, 131, 138, 146; and battle of Chamdo, 128, 132, 145
Mu Shengzhong
377n335, 383n369, 388
Nangra revolt (1949–1952)
78, 84, 258, 259
National Assembly, Tibetan
102, 114–15, 153, 214; and Dalai Lama, 215, 225; and negotiations, 227–28, 229; and Ngabö’s letters, 220, 221, 222; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 344–49, 351, 352, 353, 359, 372
nationalism: Leninism on
9–10; and minorities, 7–8, 12, 76n6; Tibetan, xx–xxi, 3, 182, 398; and Tibetan policy, 2, 395, 396, 401
Nehru, Jawaharlal
64, 103, 166, 311; and negotiations, 245n198, 273
Nepal
23, 44, 45, 153n252, 193, 285, 349; support for Tibet from, 56, 102, 107
New Democracy
xi, xvi, xviii, xix, xxi
Ngabö Ngawang Jigme
24, 95n32, 124n9, 264n65; and battle of Chamdo, 66, 124n9, 134, 145, 146, 165, 216–17, 252, 346; capture of, 147–51; in Chamdo, 109, 173, 176, 190; and continued resistance, 152n251, 154, 155, 156n279; and Dalai Lama, 220, 221, 343–45, 349; escape by, 137n111, 146–47, 175, 248; and Geda, 117; and Kashag, 216, 217, 218, 220–25, 332, 337; and Kesang Wangdu, 139, 140n134; letters from, 216–22; in Lhasa, 317, 326, 327; negotiating authority of, 305n209, 312, 325; and negotiations, 117–19, 226, 229–36, 238, 242–53, 272–94, 297–308, 311–14; and Panchen Lama, 280; and People’s Liberation Committee, 181–82, 183, 184, 185; and PLA, 157, 158n289, 169, 176, 217, 239, 330, 335, 336, 337, 343; return to Tibet of, 313–14, 321; on secret agreements, 287–88, 290; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 270, 271, 304, 312, 322, 324, 331, 345–51, 353, 355–56, 357, 359, 371; and supply problems, 368–69
Ngari region
34, 191; and division of Tibet, 192, 193, 195; PLA expeditionary force in, 43, 224, 230, 238, 239–42, 246n203, 396
Nie Rongzhen
194, 328–29, 337, 377, 378
Norbu, Thubten Jigme. see Taktser Rinpoche
Northwest Bureau: and battle of Chamdo
70–71, 124n10, 147, 148, 178, 219, 280; cavalry of, 42, 56, 122–25, 131n54, 135–36, 147, 194; and division of Tibet, 190–95, 211; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 334, 373–92; and first offensive, 33, 34, 45, 46; forces of, 366, 369, 371; and gradualist policy, 78, 81, 400; and ideology, 396; and Panchen Lama, 70, 190–91; and PLA in Lhasa, 317, 361; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 16, 18, 21, 26; in Qinghai, 215–16; and radicalization, 258, 262; Six-point Plan of, 45, 51; vs. Southwest Bureau, 3, 4, 124n10, 190–95, 328n59; and spring offensive, 195, 196, 197, 201; and Ten-point Plan, 47, 51, 56
oracles
96, 180n65, 213–14, 215
Pakistan
20
Pakpalha Geleg Namgyal
175–76, 182, 185, 186
Panchen Kanpo Lija
211
Panchen Lama
172n9, 370; arrival in Lhasa of, 325, 344; and battle of Chamdo, 70, 71; and Dalai Lama, 227n102, 280, 291, 292, 297–302, 322, 376–77, 387–88; and division of Tibet, 192, 193, 194; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 374–78, 380–81, 385, 387–91; and first offensive, 34, 37; and GMD, 20–21, 32, 291, 293, 298; group of, 16, 21, 34, 37, 47n211, 70–71, 192, 193, 195, 211n276, 224, 278, 280, 298n170, 303, 306, 374, 391; and Kashag in Yadong, 293, 298–302, 311; and Korean War, 257–58; and Mao Zedong, 16, 101–2, 112, 280, 325n44; and negotiations, 36, 224, 272, 277, 278, 279, 280, 284, 297–302, 314; and Ngari expeditionary force, 242; and Northwest Bureau, 70, 190–91; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28; and Preparatory Committee, 194, 211–12; Qinghai reincarnation of, 16n38, 37, 97, 98n41, 272, 280, 291, 292n135, 293, 300–302, 303n199, 387; and radicalization, 47n211, 261; recognition of, 290–93, 300–302, 303n199, 311–12; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 270–71, 294, 301–6, 308, 310, 350, 354, 356; support for China from, 100, 101, 102; and Ten-point Plan, 50, 52
Pangdatsang, Ragpa
34n132, 118, 119, 128, 145
Pangdatsang, Tobgyal
34n132, 173, 182, 185, 189
Pangdatsang, Yampel
34n132
Pangdatsang family
24, 34, 53, 66, 81, 84, 145n177
Pannikkar, Kavalam Madhava
166, 244–45, 246, 247, 248
Peng Dehuai
15–18, 42, 43, 78, 99, 101–2, 111, 178, 239, 374
Pepper, Suzanne
xv
Phala Thupten Woden
214n10, 215, 318
PLA (People’s Liberation Army): 14th Army of (Yunnan)
202; abuses by, 12, 38, 41, 76, 83, 177, 197, 215; advance on Lhasa by, 279, 280, 306, 313–14, 344, 356, 357; in Amdo, 78, 110, 111, 280, 329; casualties of, 199, 200, 362–65, 373, 383–89; cavalry of, 42, 56, 122–25, 131n54, 135–36, 147, 194; and Dalai Lama, 170n381, 223, 226n96; at Derge, 68–69, 84; difficulties of, xiv–xvi, xx, xxi, 3–4, 53–56, 69–70, 73–74, 168n374, 169, 171, 204, 231, 275n32, 280, 306, 344n156, 396; and division of Tibet, 193, 194, 202; entry into Tibet of, 272, 275, 276, 279, 281–86, 303, 314, 321; female soldiers in, 363; vs. GMD, 30n111, 82, 203, 267; and guerrilla warfare, 104, 128, 177, 393; on Indian border, 273, 276, 283; in Kham, 20, 40, 52, 80, 81, 83, 87, 131, 186, 188n116, 192, 224, 264; map of routes of, 405; and negotiations, 219–21, 224, 225, 228, 230, 235, 238–42, 245, 247–52, 254, 273, 276, 279–86, 291; and Ngabö, 157, 158n289, 169, 176, 217, 239, 252, 330, 335–37, 343; Ngari expeditionary force of, 43, 224, 230, 238, 239–42, 246n203, 396; and radicalization, 257, 258, 264; and road building, 61, 197, 199–200, 329, 334, 339, 361, 374, 378; rules of conduct for, 72, 196, 327; in secret agreements, 287, 288, 289; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 294, 295, 306, 309, 316, 328, 344, 346, 347, 351–58; threat of, 238, 239–42, 299; and Tibetan elites, 82–83, 109, 110, 118, 159–60, 203, 218n39, 338–39, 341, 343, 397; Tibetan resistance to, xxii, 29–32, 52–53, 54, 61, 78–80, 148, 152–56, 196, 214, 253, 268, 281, 328, 332, 336, 338, 392–93
PLA, 18th Army of: 52nd division of
40–41, 124, 128, 129, 158, 161, 193, 332, 334, 361; 53rd division of, 124; 54th artillery division of, 124, 132; 126th Yunnan regiment of, 124, 125, 129, 143, 144, 373; 154th Qinghai regiment of, 58n278, 99, 122–25, 153, 163, 164, 194, 215, 329, 332, 340–41, 361–66, 369, 391, 396; 155th regiment of, 124, 129, 130, 146, 147, 361, 363, 364; 156th regiment of, 124, 129, 130, 132, 146, 147, 149, 150, 152, 361; 157th regiment of, 83; and advance into Tibet, 328–43; air support for, xxii, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 61, 63–66, 65n319, 70, 83n48, 189, 334, 361, 370, 385; arrival in Lhasa of, 2, 317, 325, 326, 327; in battle of Chamdo, 4, 60, 68, 70, 73, 122, 124, 128–52, 397; casualties of, 364–65, 373, 383–89; in Chamdo, 13, 171–212; criticisms of, 159, 160, 178–79, 183; and famine, 186–90; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 378, 379, 381, 388, 389; first losses of, 57–60; and first offensive, 30–34, 38–39, 42, 43–44, 45, 46; and Geda, 115; in Kham, 80, 83, 264; morale of, xxii, 19, 27, 40, 54–55, 70, 119, 146, 179, 188, 247, 364–65, 378, 383; and negotiations, 218, 232, 248; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 15, 19–29, 313n260; and preparations for spring offensive, 195–99, 201, 202; prisoners of, 156–57, 161, 162, 163n331, 175, 176, 198, 199, 217, 223, 224; and road building, 16, 19, 23, 25, 26, 29–31, 40–42, 60, 62, 64–66, 69, 73, 195, 306; rules of conduct for, 196; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, xix, 315–16; supply problems of, 60–66, 82–83, 125, 128, 134, 135–36, 143, 153, 156n279, 157–59, 186–90, 197–99, 202, 207, 224, 253, 282, 324, 326, 329, 331, 332, 334, 336, 337, 339, 354; and Ten-point Plan, 48, 50, 51; three-years promise to, 19, 54, 55; Tibetan resistance to, 52–53, 54, 61, 153–56, 328, 363, 392; vanguard of, 328–43, 347, 348n172, 350n181, 359, 361, 364n267, 379, 397
popular masses, Tibetan: and battle of Chamdo
68, 70, 72; as cadres, 16, 183, 193, 198, 203, 261, 335; and division of Tibet, 75, 192, 203; and Han chauvinism, 7, 76n6, 89, 192, 196, 262, 310, 333; and ideology, 2, 397; vs. Lhasa government, 177–78; and PLA, 82–83, 159–60, 196, 205, 365, 398; and radicalization, 178, 260, 265; reactions of, 2, 3, 4, 52, 75, 80, 83, 89, 90, 174–78, 209, 338, 397–98, 399; recruitment of labor from, 66, 201; resistance by, 52–53, 54, 61, 201n207, 338
Qing dynasty
xii, 1, 2, 7, 8, 176, 224, 225, 335
Qinghai
1, 354; and Amdo, 75, 256; and battle of Chamdo, 71; cavalry from, 42, 56, 122–25, 131n54, 135–36, 147, 194; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 374; and first offensive, 37, 47; gradualist policy in, 78–79, 84; map of PLA routes from, 405; pastoral regions of, 263; PLA in, 58n278, 76, 99, 122–25, 153, 163, 164, 194, 215, 280, 329, 332, 340–41, 361–66, 369, 391, 396; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 16, 17, 19, 23, 26; radicalization in, 47n211, 77, 89–90, 216, 256, 258, 259, 262; revolts in, 76–77, 78, 80, 81–82, 261; and Ten-point Plan, 51
radicalization
4, 255–69; in Amdo, 256–62, 265, 269; and CCP cadres, 205, 263, 264, 269, 399; in Chamdo, 178, 204–9, 256, 264, 265, 269, 332, 398; and Deng Xiaoping, 206, 208, 263, 265, 266, 269; and Geda, 114; vs. gradualist policy, 77, 81, 84, 255, 398–99; and Han ethnic group, 178, 179, 255, 257, 262, 265; in inner vs. outer Tibet, 398–99; in Kham, 81–82, 259, 262–69; and Korean War, 178–81, 183, 257; and land reform, 78, 178, 255–56, 261–63, 265–67, 269; and Mao, 206, 255, 261, 262, 263, 267; and PLA, 332, 340n138; in Qinghai, 47n211, 77, 89–90, 216, 256, 258, 259, 262; and revolts, 256, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263–64, 268; and Tibetan elites, 47n210, 90, 205, 206, 257, 260, 262–65; in Xikang, 178, 256, 264, 265, 266, 267
radio
48, 57, 82n43, 91, 100, 102, 105; and first offensive, 44–45, 47; and Ford, 57, 124n9, 130; and Fox, 322, 323; and Lhalu, 110, 124n9
Red Army
11–12; and Bopa Republic, 84, 112n160; in Long March, 12, 22n68, 28, 34n131, 38, 41, 187, 192, 330
religious freedom
77, 180, 183, 198, 324.
Buddhism
Republican revolution (1911)
xv
Reting, former regent
86, 94n21, 115n176, 224, 324, 367n284; and power of Dalai Lama, 215, 219, 221, 222
revolts: in Amdo
30n111, 76–77, 78, 78n17, 79, 256, 258, 259, 261, 262; in Kham, 81, 87; Nangra revolt (1949–1952), 78, 84, 258, 259; and negotiations, 79–80; 1959 rebellion, 169; 1987 riots, 169; in Qinghai, 76–77, 78, 80, 81–82, 261; and radicalization, 256, 258, 259, 261–64, 268; repression of, 79, 90; and self-criticisms, 80; in Xikang, 82, 89, 268
Richardson, Hugh
58, 69, 108, 118, 222n73, 281, 323n36; and expulsion of GMD, 15n29, 92, 93–94, 96; and foreign support for Tibet, 99, 100, 101, 104, 107; on military plans, 111, 120
Rnam-rgyal-dbaṅ-’dus
6n9, 96n33, 135, 162, 164, 169n380
Roshchin, Nikolai V.
15, 56n263, 285
Sadutshang, Rinchen
277n43, 278, 302n191
Sampo Tenzin Dhondrub
234n138, 235n143, 278, 302n191
Samseling
218
Schwartz, Benjamin
xix
Sera monastery
86, 215, 356
Seventeen-Point Agreement (1951)
xxi, 270–316; Article 2 (on PLA), 303; Articles 5 and 6 (on Panchen Lama), 301–2, 303; Article 14 (on foreign affairs), 303n200; Article 15 (Administrative and Military Committee), 271, 293–97, 303, 313, 314, 324, 346, 347, 351–55, 359, 367, 371–72; Article 16 (on PLA), 328; Article 17 (on implementation), 328; announcement of, 310–12, 392; and Chamdo District, 208–10, 307, 347, 351–55; and Chinese coercion, 311, 314–15; and continued resistance, 152, 154, 268; and Dalai Lama, 286–90, 303–6, 308, 310, 317, 318, 351, 353–55, 358, 359, 367, 372; and Deng Xiaoping, 35, 303, 313, 351, 371; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 308, 375, 376, 381, 385; and fear of Tibetan resistance, 251–52; implementation of, 371–73; and India, 311, 313, 349; and Kashag, 270–71, 295, 302n191, 303–5, 310, 321–23, 331, 350, 351, 353, 356, 357, 372, 392; Leninist vocabulary in, 315; and Mao Zedong, 302, 305–10, 316, 333, 356, 358, 359; negotiations on, 213–54, 270–301; and Ngabö, 270, 271, 304, 312, 322, 324, 331, 345–51, 353, 355–56, 357, 359, 371; opposition to, 371–72; and Panchen Lama, 270–71, 294, 301–6, 308, 310, 350, 354, 356; and PLA, 294, 295, 303, 306, 309, 316, 328, 333, 335, 344, 346, 347, 351–58; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 343, 362, 364; secret agreements in, 271, 286–90, 311, 317, 321, 352n192, 371; signing of, xi, xviii, 1n1, 302–5; telegram accepting, 343–60; and Ten-point Plan, 38, 49, 50, 303, 315; Tibetan acceptance of, 328, 330, 332, 345, 347, 350–60, 392; and Tibetan National Assembly, 344–49, 351, 352, 353, 359, 372; and Zhang Jingwu, 308–9, 313, 314, 317–27, 331, 347, 350–60, 371, 392
Shakabpa, Tespon Wangchuk Deden
319n13; and battle of Chamdo, 67, 69, 165, 166, 167; and Dalai Lama’s departure, 219; delegation of, 102, 103, 107, 108, 117, 119, 214n11, 217; and Geda, 113, 157; and negotiations, 109, 223, 227–28; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 311
Sherab Gyatso
47n211, 112, 303
Shi Bo
14n25
Shi Zhe
13
Sichuan Province
1, 15, 19, 28, 354; and Amdo, 75, 256; and Kham, 80; map of PLA routes from, 405; PLA units from, 122–23
Simla Tripartite Conference (October 1913)
274
Snow, Edgar
12
Southwest Bureau: and Administrative and Military Committee
313; and battle of Chamdo, 5, 60–62, 65, 70–71, 73, 124n10, 128, 133, 144, 147, 150–52, 164; on casualties, 158, 160, 161; and Chamdo District, 173, 174, 180, 189, 207, 210; criticisms from, 159; and Dalai Lama, 180n65, 367; and division of Tibet, 190–95, 202; and Fan Ming, 327, 374, 376–81, 391; and first offensive, 30, 32, 34, 37, 39, 42, 43, 46, 47; and gradualist policy, 21, 74, 81, 180, 350n181, 400; and Kesang Wangdu, 141, 142, 143; and negotiations, 36, 38, 110, 171, 232, 233, 235, 237, 247; on Ngabö, 176; vs. Northwest Bureau, 3, 4, 124n10, 190–95, 328n59; and Panchen Lama, 70; and People’s Liberation Committee, 182, 185; and PLA advance into Tibet, 331, 334, 337; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 25–26, 29; and PLA vanguard, 332, 339, 341, 361, 364, 370; and radicalization, 263, 264, 265, 268; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 308, 371; and spring offensive, 196, 197, 202; and Ten-point Plan, 47, 49, 52, 56; “Tibet Project” of, 34–35, 45; and Xikang Tibetan Autonomous Region, 88; and Zhang Jingwu, 327, 328
Soviet Union (USSR)
9; air support from, xxii, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 65n319, 189; and minorities, 10, 11
Stalin, Joseph
13, 25, 41, 115
Sun Gong
136, 148, 149, 150
Sun Yat-sen
7, 8, 34n132
Sun Zhiyuan
278, 300–302, 308
Surkang family
24
Surkang Shakabpa
24
Surkang Wangchen Gelek
33, 33n125, 100n58, 167; and Dalai Lama, 318, 322, 341; in India, 103, 104; and negotiations, 228, 237–38; and Regent Reting, 215, 324
Taiwan
xv, 78n17, 97n41, 315; gradualism in, 77n13; planned occupation of, 13, 14, 17, 56n262, 71, 112
Takla Phuntsok Tashi
277, 278, 288, 357
Taktra, Regent (Ngawang Sungrab Thutob)
24, 46, 92, 95–96, 109n136, 213, 214, 215
Taktser Rinpoche (Thubten Jigme Norbu)
33n129, 67n332, 243n187, 256, 319n1, 344n153; and first offensive, 33, 45, 47; and Ten-point Plan, 51, 215; in US, 318, 324, 341
Tan Guansan
391
Tarchin
342
Ten-point Plan (May 1950)
47–60, 240; and Administrative and Military Committee, 294, 295; on autonomy, 50, 86n70; and battle of Chamdo, 60, 61, 64, 66, 67, 68, 72; concessions in, 48, 49–50; contradictions of, 61–62; and Dalai Lama, 48, 50, 51, 52, 55; and Deng Xiaoping, 35, 47–60, 90, 314, 398; and division of Tibet, 202–3; draft of, 45; first publication of, 180–81; and Geda, 114; and gradualist policy, 49, 83, 90; and imperialists, 48, 51, 55, 56, 180; and negotiations, 49, 51, 52, 105n101, 109, 110, 118, 213, 225, 231–33, 247, 248, 272, 275–77, 279, 281, 283, 290, 291, 314; and Ngabö, 176, 216; and Northwest Bureau, 47, 51, 56; and Panchen Lama, 299; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 35, 38, 49, 50, 303, 315; and Southwest Bureau, 47, 49, 52, 56; and Taktser Rinpoche, 51, 215
Thomas, Lowell
98–99, 107, 169
Three Monastic Seats
218–19, 222, 318, 326, 365, 366; and negotiations, 221, 231, 233; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 345, 356.
monasteries
Thubden Legmon
278, 313
Tian Bao (Sangye Yeshe)
22, 36n141, 36n143, 39, 87, 267; and Ten-point Plan, 49; and Xikang Autonomous Region, 88, 267
Tianzhu, autonomous canton of (Gansu)
76, 90
Tibetan Army: 4th (Gyantse) Regiment of
127, 153, 161; and battle of Chamdo, 62, 65, 68, 71–72, 73, 160–63; casualties of, 160–63; and continued resistance, 152–56; destruction of, 180; and division of Tibet, 203; fear of resistance by, 251–52, 314n260, 328, 393; first victories of, 57–60; and guerrilla warfare, 99, 104, 168–69, 170n381; integration into PLA of, 282–83, 284, 286, 333, 353, 371; numbers of troops in, 24, 125–28; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 23–24, 25, 28, 100; and PLA vanguard, 264, 338, 362, 363, 365; in secret agreements, 287, 289; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 350; and Ten-point Plan, 47, 48, 50, 56; weakness of, 120, 130, 137, 158, 168, 169
Tibetan Communist Party
36n141
Tibetan cultural region: Chinese descriptions of
24, 34, 398; and Chinese national defense, 8, 27, 307; division of, 1, 3, 38, 87, 88, 190–95, 202–3, 252, 255, 268, 307–8, 399; integration into PRC of, 254, 269, 273, 274, 275, 281, 314, 316; PRC policies in, 4, 75–90; reunification of, 352, 353, 354; Tibetan claims on, 101, 102
Tibetan government
xii, 1; and Administrative and Military Committee, 294; and battle of Chamdo, xiv, 123–24, 167; and Chamdo District, 172, 209–12; and Chinese threat, 99–100; and continued resistance, 152–53, 155; divisions within, 24–25, 398; expulsion of GMD by, 14, 43–44, 92–97, 98, 123n8, 395; foreign support for, 23, 56, 65, 98–107, 120–21, 126, 170n381, 180–81, 224, 246n203, 318–19, 320, 341, 359; and Geda, 116; and imperialists, 13, 98, 102, 111, 195, 332, 336; as local government, 108, 211, 220, 232, 291, 295, 315, 321, 357; and negotiations, 9, 22–23, 35–36, 102–3, 106, 107–11, 117–19, 167–68, 213, 266, 273; and Ngabö’s letters, 216–22; proposed elimination of, 169n376; and radicalization, 208, 209, 258; reaction to Chinese by, 3, 91–121; region controlled by, 8–9, 24, 268, 398; Tibetan opposition to, 80, 177; weakness of, 107, 193.
Dalai Lama; Kashag; National Assembly, Tibetan
Tibetan language
39, 44, 47n211, 48, 55, 84, 105, 175, 183, 199, 303
Tibetan Progressive Party
34n132
Tibetan Working committees
22, 157, 197, 206, 327, 391–92; in Chamdo, 67, 204; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 375, 377–78
Truman, Harry S.
99
Tsang region
191, 193, 195, 197
Tsering Shakya
6, 92n10, 126, 156n279, 223; on negotiations, 236–37, 300n182; on Seventeen-Point Agreement, 271, 287
Ula (‘u-lag) labor system
37–38, 184, 196
UN (United Nations)
65, 227, 228, 238
United Front policy
xviii, 12, 68, 181n68, 203, 262n48, 278; and Mao’s hegemony strategy, xvi–xvii; and Tibetan elites, 177, 179, 206, 309, 325, 397
United Kingdom
.
see Britain
United States (US)
13, 15, 17, 166, 244, 257; and Dalai Lama, 219, 227; and Korean War, 178; support for Tibet from, 23, 98–105, 106, 120, 126, 181, 224, 319, 320, 341, 359.
imperialists
U region
191, 193
Veyne, Paul
xi
Wangchen Dondrup
78, 79, 258
Wang Gui
155n275
Wang Qimei: and battle of Chamdo
68; on casualties, 157–58, 163n336; and Chamdo District, 173, 176, 204; and Dalai Lama, 226, 367; and division of Tibet, 191n147, 202; and Geda, 112–13, 116–17; and Leninist language, 397; in Lhasa, 208, 317, 326, 327; and negotiations, 234, 236, 243, 247, 275; and Ngabö, 173, 216, 218; and People’s Liberation Committee, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185; and PLA advance into Tibet, 206n249, 314, 330–32, 335–37, 339–43; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 308, 345, 351
Wang Xiaobing
211n278
Wangyal Phuntsok
88, 172n9, 173; and Administrative and Military Committee, 294, 296, 297; and battle of Chamdo, 66, 67; and Dalai Lama, 367; and Eastern Tibetan Youth Democratic League, 86, 87; expulsion from Lhasa of, 95; and first offensive, 39, 44; and Geda, 113, 116, 157; and negotiations, 36, 118, 232, 233, 236, 250, 278, 280, 300; and Ngabö, 176, 216; and People’s Liberation Committee, 181, 182, 185; and PLA advance into Tibet, 84, 330, 331, 335, 336; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 338, 341n142; recruitment by, 53, 140, 198; on secret agreements, 287; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 271, 304, 307, 357; and Ten-point Plan, 49; and Tibetan elites, 53, 159, 175n32
Wang Zhen
26, 43, 242
Winnington, A.
209n268
Woeser, Tsering
113, 116
World War III, anticipation of
320, 324, 341, 393
Wu Zhong
40, 168n373, 173, 181; and battle of Chamdo, 129, 130–31, 132, 146, 147, 150n230; and casualties, 58, 59–60; in Chamdo, 174, 176, 190; and continued resistance, 152–53; and Geda, 112; and negotiations, 110, 111
Xikang Autonomous Region
88–89, 192, 251; and Chamdo District, 80, 89, 171–72, 209, 210, 212; radicalization in, 264, 265, 267; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 307
Xikang Province: administrative sections of
87–88; and Amdo, 75, 88, 202n222; and battle of Chamdo, 60, 63; and Chamdo District, 31, 65, 171–72, 181–86; and Deng Xiaoping, 84, 85–86, 88, 89, 90; gradualism in, 90; and Kham, 8, 80, 88, 89, 172, 262; and negotiations, 38; occupation of, 9, 14, 15; “People’s Government of,” 87; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 23, 26, 29; radicalization in, 178, 256, 264, 265, 266, 267; revolts in, 60, 82, 89, 268; and Ten-point Plan, 53
Xining
5, 42, 76, 79, 382, 386; road from, 24, 26, 200n207, 378
Xinjiang Province
xii, xx, 8, 14, 15, 280; map of PLA routes from, 405; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 16, 19, 23, 26; PLA units from, 122–23, 329; radicalization in, 258; and threat of PLA, 239, 242
Xi Zhongxun
78–79, 258–62, 269, 379
Yadong (Dromo)
221, 222; Dalai Lama in, 180n65, 215, 223, 225–28, 229, 241, 273, 331; delegation from, 194, 251, 253, 272–73, 275, 282.
Kashag (Tibetan governing council; Yadong)
Ya Hanzhang
376n328, 377n335, 381
Yang Yizhen
133, 137, 162
Yi ethnic group
87, 88, 265
Yin Fatang
55, 160
Yuan Zhongxian
73
Yunnan Province
1, 354; and Chamdo District, 206; and Kham, 80, 262; map of PLA routes from, 405; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 19, 23, 26; PLA units from, 122–23, 124, 125, 129, 143, 144, 202, 329, 373; radicalization in, 77, 90, 256, 264; revolts in, 80, 263
Yushu (Amdo)
110, 111, 260, 261, 280, 329, 378
Zhang Guohua
1n1, 85; and battle of Chamdo, 61, 65, 70, 126, 128, 129, 145n176, 148, 149, 152; on casualties, 59, 158; and Chamdo District, 176, 187, 188, 206; and continued resistance, 153, 155; and Dalai Lama, 366, 367–68; daughter of (Zhang Xiaokang), 137, 164, 365n272; and division of Tibet, 191; expedition to Lhasa of, 208, 317, 361–66, 373; vs. Fan Ming, 328n59, 373n315; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 377, 378–82, 384, 386–88, 390, 391; and first offensive, 31, 34; and Kesang Wangdu, 141, 142; on Lhalu, 109–10; and negotiations, 278, 280, 299; on obstacles to PLA, 168n374; and People’s Liberation Committee, 181, 182; and PLA advance into Tibet, 328–29, 330, 331, 333, 334, 337; and plans for occupation of Tibet, 19, 20, 22, 25, 27, 28; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 339, 340–41; and Preparatory Committee, 212; self-criticism by, 55; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 305, 306, 354, 356, 358, 359; and Ten-point Plan, 49; and Zhang Jingwu, 326–27, 349n176, 360, 365, 370
Zhang Jingwu: and Dalai Lama
317–28, 331, 345n157, 348–49, 368, 387; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 390; in Lhasa, 317, 323–28, 337, 349n176, 363n255; and Mao, 317, 321, 327; and negotiations, 172, 253n241, 278; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 338–39, 343; and Preparatory Committee, 294n147; in secret agreements, 286n100, 288; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 308–9, 313, 314, 317–27, 331, 347, 350–60, 371, 392; and supply problems, 369–70; and Tibetan elites, 325, 327; in Yadong, 317–23; and Zhang Guohua, 326–27, 349n176, 360, 365, 370
Zhang Xiaokang
136–37, 164
Zhang Zhongliang
26n82, 47n211, 77, 256, 258–59
Zhao Shenying
315n263
Zhi Qing
32, 33, 35, 47, 52
Zhong Yiran
185
Zhou Enlai
5, 330; and battle of Chamdo, 67; and division of Tibet, 193, 194; and Fan Ming’s expedition, 195, 374; on imperialists, 15, 44; and negotiations, 67, 108, 230, 231, 233, 243–49, 253, 272, 278n47; on Panchen Lama, 300; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 309; and Zhang Jingwu, 317, 326
Zhu De: and first offensive
34, 39; and Geda, 112n160; and Kesang Wangdu, 142–43; and negotiations, 243, 253, 272; and occupation of Tibet, 16, 22, 101–2, 330; and PLA vanguard in Lhasa, 338; and Seventeen-Point Agreement, 302n194, 303, 304, 306n213; and Ten-point Plan, 52, 180; and Tibetan elites, 81, 176
Zhu Geliang
79n23