Index
Case names are in italics. Page numbers in italics refer to figures, page numbers followed by n indicate footnotes, and page numbers followed by t indicate tables (59t).
1.5 °C target
8, 9, 45, 54–56
Aarhus Convention (1998)
20, 66–67, 73–74
academics, role in litigation
39–40, 58, 59t, 99–100
access to courts
15, 65–81, 89, 91, 92, 121
resources, availability of; standing
ACLA (Administrative Case Litigation Act)
45–46, 46n36–37, 48, 50, 72, 73, 82
activism, judicial
18, 84–85
activists
social movements
legislation participation
88–89
litigation participation
13, 29, 84–85, 89, 98t, 99, 105, 114, 115t, 135
municipal
152
resources
90
suppression in South Korea
80
Act on Asbestos Health Damage Relief
32, 136n16
Act on the Costs of Civil Proceedings
133
Act on the Expediting of Trials
135
Act on the Promotion of Global Warming Countermeasures (APGWC)
22, 133, 157
Act on the Settlement of Environmental Pollution Disputes
42n25, 57n66
Administrative Case Litigation Act (ACLA)
45–46, 46n36–37, 48, 50, 72, 73, 82
administrative litigation
21, 58, 87
Kobe administrative case; Yokosuka
Administrative Procedure Act (APA)
67, 71
air pollutants
carbon dioxide (CO₂)
absence of assessment
44, 49, 53
definition
70n12
PM2.5
34n23, 39–40, 43, 44, 49, 53, 57, 84, 127
sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
26, 28, 30t, 57
air pollution
antipollution litigation; carbon dioxide (CO₂); greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
health impacts
26, 29n17, 39–40, 42–44, 57, 84
highway traffic
28, 28n15, 33, 41, 43, 126
as motivation for CCL
101–103, 102, 105, 108, 109t, 117, 117
Amagasaki case
41, 95, 108
amenities, environmental
30–31, 34
American Bar Association
80, 142
ammonia. see “decarbonized” coal (ammonia and hydrogen co-firing)
antipollution litigation
claims combined with greenhouse gas emissions
39–40, 43, 57, 59, 59t
compared to CCL
11, 59–61, 60t, 103, 103, 105, 123
early litigation
24–29, 25n2, 28n15, 41, 84
and human rights
91
standing
49, 54, 57, 70, 90, 127
APA (Administrative Procedure Act)
67, 71
APGWC (Act on the Promotion of Global Warming Countermeasures)
22, 133, 157
Armando Ferrão Carvalho and Others v. The European Parliament and the Council. see People’s Climate Case
asbestos
30, 32, 136, 136n16
Ashio Copper Mine
24–25
asthma
26, 29n17, 44, 84
attorneys. see legal professionals, availability of
auditors
96, 97t, 99, 106t, 111t, 112t, 113t, 114
Australia
5, 9, 9n18, 89t, 157n1
automobile emissions. see air pollution; highway traffic
avoidability
139t, 140
Bali Guidelines
66–67, 74
barriers to CCL
access to courts; resources, availability of; standing
deterrents
90n61, 94t, 95, 124–126
gender-related
75–76t
hesitations
110, 111t, 127
Basic Environmental Act
31
Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control
27–28, 31
Benjamin, Lisa
15, 64
biodiversity damage
37t, 39
BP
81, 148
Brazil
5, 81
Brown & Williamson
136–137, 145
CAA (Clean Air Act, United States)
69, 71, 81–82, 136
Canada
5, 89t, 137
carbon capture and storage (CCS) systems
10, 56
carbon dioxide (CO₂)
emission reduction; regulation of emissions
“decarbonized” coal (ammonia and hydrogen co-firing)
8, 10, 53, 56
recognition as a pollutant
21, 57n66, 69, 136
carbon neutrality pledge (Japan by 2050)
10, 40, 56, 87, 133, 152, 157
Carbon Tracker Initiative
88
Carter v. Philip Morris
143
case law
21, 48, 83–84, 90
Castano
144–145
causation
emissions and climate change
44–45, 61, 69
emissions and extreme weather events
134, 139–140, 139t
emissions and harms
26, 32, 148
emissions and human rights violations
44–45, 54
joint tort liability
84
smoking and illnesses
142
CCL. see climate change litigation (CCL)
CCS (carbon capture and storage) systems
10, 56
CFPP. see coal-fired power plant (CFPP)
Chubu Electric Power Co.
52
Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act
142
Cipollone v. Liggett
143
Citizen Group v. Japan
46n39, 73
citizens
activists; residents; social movements
climate crisis recognition
88, 89t
lay judges (saiban-in)
134, 134n11
participation diminishing over time
99n7
participation in legislation
88, 88n59
Citizens’ Committee for the Kobe CFPPs
42
Citizens’ Committee on the Kobe Coal-Fired Power Plant v. Japan. see Kobe administrative case
citizen suits
67, 71–72, 85, 133
civil law
21, 85
Civil Litigation Survey
methodology
93–94
results
13, 90n61, 94t, 124
used as model
101, 106, 116
class actions
72, 143–145, 144n28, 150t, 152t
Clean Air Act (CAA, United States)
69, 71, 81–82, 136
Clean Water Act (United States)
71, 82
Climate Change Act (South Korea)
83
Climate Change Adaptation Act (CCAA)
22
climate change as human rights violation. see human rights violation, climate change as
climate change litigation (CCL)
barriers to CCL
compared to environmental litigation
11, 14, 34, 59–61, 60t, 103, 103, 105, 123–124
compared to tobacco litigation
136–140, 139t, 149–153, 150t, 152t
definition
4
geographical distribution
4–5, 5, 6, 11–12, 62, 64
number of cases
4–5, 5, 12, 62, 81, 86, 91, 146, 147
scholarship on
11–12
climate crisis recognition
88, 89t
climate justice
37t, 56
climate legislation. see legislation, climate
climate science
44, 119, 134, 134n12, 139, 145–146
“climate wash”
138n18
greenwashing
CO₂. see carbon dioxide (CO₂)
coal-fired power plant (CFPP)
abolition and phase-out
10, 56, 117, 123.
decarbonization
cases against. see Kobe administrative case; Kobe civil case; Sendai; Yokosuka
construction surge
8, 37, 44
“decarbonized” coal (ammonia and hydrogen co-firing)
8, 10, 53, 56
technology (subcritical and ultra-supercritical)
36t, 40–41, 55
utility and public value
40–41
Colombian Supreme Court
148n42
Colorado River Ecosystem
148
compensation
for asbestos
32, 136
excluded in citizen suits
71
as motivation for litigation
96, 137
for pollution
24–25, 25n2, 31, 41, 61, 73, 126
tobacco litigation
143–144
tort
21n9, 84, 136
Comprehensive Legal Support Act
74
Connecticut v. American Electric Power Co.
147–148
conservatism, judicial
17, 86–87, 119
Constitution
unconstitutionality
of Germany
130n1
of Japan
18–21, 21n8, 56, 85n51, 90–91, 91n64
of South Africa
90
Constitutional Court, South Korean
72
constitutional rights
and human rights
15, 21, 70, 90–91
violation of
7, 70, 83, 138n18, 148
control. see legislation, climate; regulation of emissions
COP25
10
COP28
8
court system
infrastructure
82–83
perceptions of the
120–122, 120
COVID-19 pandemic
53, 105–106, 146
damages. see compensation; harms; health harms
decarbonization
CCL’s contribution to
12, 124
Japan
10, 12, 56, 87, 108, 109t, 126, 157
other countries
12, 82
“decarbonized” coal (ammonia and hydrogen co-firing)
8, 10, 53, 56
defendants
corporations and companies
5, 19, 44, 58, 138, 140, 142, 147–148.
Kobe civil case; Sendai; Youth
governments
5, 5n4, 7, 45, 58, 138, 138n18, 140, 151.
Kobe administrative case; Yokosuka
demographics of plaintiffs/supporters
58–59, 62, 97–98t, 99–100, 105, 107, 107t, 114, 115t
deterrents to litigation
90n61, 94t, 95, 124–126
“Diet of Environmental Disruption”
27
Director-General Meeting Agreement
8, 37, 44
disasters, natural and climate-change related
126–127, 134
extreme weather events; Great East Japan Earthquake (2011)
disclosure
transparency
failed
39, 81
requests for
38, 42–43, 82, 137, 148–149, 150t
disease. see health harms
Do-Hyun Kim et al. v. South Korea
7, 47n41, 62n72, 138n18, 139n20
Dutch Supreme Court
6, 133
Earth Guardians
148
Earthjustice
90
EBA (Electricity Business Act)
8, 22, 47, 49, 82
economic harm
72–73
ECtHR (European Court of Human Rights)
7, 17
EDI (Environmental Democracy Index)
67, 68t, 74, 75–76t
EIA Act. see Environmental Impact Assessment Act (EIA Act)
Electricity Business Act (EBA)
8, 22, 47, 49, 82
electric power companies, litigation against. see Kobe civil case; Polar Bear; Sendai; Youth
emission reduction
regulation of emissions
carbon neutrality pledge (Japan by 2050)
10, 40, 56, 87, 133, 152, 157
CFPP technology (subcritical and ultra-supercritical)
36t, 40–41, 55
“decarbonized” coal (ammonia and hydrogen co-firing)
8, 10, 53, 56
net-zero emissions
53, 152, 152t
targets
8, 9, 10, 12n28, 83, 157
energy, renewable
10, 82, 88, 126
Energy Conservation Act
8
ENEX Electric Power Corporation
39
England. see United Kingdom
Engle
144
Environmental Agency (later: Ministry of the Environment)
28
Ministry of the Environment (MOE)
environmental amenities
30–31, 34
environmental degradation in Japan
33
Environmental Democracy Index (EDI)
67, 68t, 74, 75–76t
Environmental Dispute Coordination Commission
57n66
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
legality of notices
9, 22, 37t, 49–50, 53, 54, 87
process
42, 47–48, 47–48n43–45, 49, 55, 82
Simplified Replacement Assessment Guidelines
51–55
Environmental Impact Assessment Act (EIA Act)
absence of PM2.5 regulation
44, 49
invoked in cases
82
relaxed requirements for CFPPs
8, 22, 37, 44
standing
48–49, 54–55
environmental litigation
compared to CCL
11, 14, 34, 59–61, 60t, 103, 103, 105, 123–124
history of
11, 13–16, 24–34, 86
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
70–71, 136–137, 148
environmental tobacco smoke
144–145, 151
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
7, 17
European Union
5
existing law
15, 81–84, 90–91, 92, 133
case law; Constitution; legislation, climate
expectations of litigation
95, 102–106, 102, 104, 110–112, 112t, 126
extreme weather events
11, 134, 139–140, 139t
disasters, natural and climate-change related
ExxonMobil
81, 146–147, 149
Exxon Mobil Corp.
81
FDA (Food and Drug Administration)
136–137, 145
FDA v. Brown & Williamson
136–137
FFF (Fridays For Future)
46, 52, 58, 135
financial resources. see resources, availability of
flooding
25, 49, 54, 73, 139, 139t
Florida Supreme Court
145
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
136–137, 145
FossielVrij
138n18
fossil fuels. see coal-fired power plant (CFPP); decarbonization; emission reduction
France
5, 13, 89t
Fridays For Future (FFF)
46, 52, 58, 135
Friends of the Irish Environment v. Ireland
7
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
8, 32, 36
future generations
legal rights of
7, 61n70, 83, 148
as motivation for litigation
58, 101, 103, 105, 117, 125
protected by CCL
14, 28, 60, 60t, 61
Future Generations
148n42
Galanter, Mark
135–136, 137, 145, 152
gender-related barriers
75–76t
geographical distribution of CCL
4–5, 5, 6, 11–12, 62, 64
Germany
CCL cases
4n3, 5, 7, 20, 138n18
climate crisis recognition
89t
coal phase-out
12
Constitution
19, 130n1
litigation costs
135
litigation rates
13
standing rules
89, 130
GHG. see greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
Global North
4, 11–12, 15, 64
Global South
4, 12, 15, 64, 87n57
global warming
Act on the Promotion of Global Warming Countermeasures (APGWC)
1.5 °C target
8, 9, 45, 54–56
in CCL cases
44–45, 50, 70, 146
as motivation for litigation
101–103, 102, 105, 109t, 117, 117
transboundary problem of
82
grassroots movements. see social movements
Great East Japan Earthquake (2011)
8, 36, 51
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
air pollutants; carbon dioxide (CO₂); emission reduction; regulation of emissions
claims combined with air pollution
39–40, 43, 57, 59, 59t
and climate change
44–45, 61, 69
and extreme weather events
134, 139–140, 139t
and harms
26, 32, 148
and human rights violations
44–45, 54
Japan
8
shift in social acceptance
138, 139t
United States
146, 147
Greenpeace
40, 137
greenwashing
6, 7, 138n18
Guterres, António
10
harms
biodiversity damage
37t, 39
direct vs. diffuse
31–32, 61, 139–140, 139t, 150t, 152t
economic
72–73
extreme weather events
11, 134, 139–140, 139t
flooding
25, 49, 54, 73, 139, 139t
future
60, 60t, 61.
future generations
marine ecosystem damage
52–54
plaintiffs’ responsibility for
143, 149, 149n47
vulnerable populations
33, 49, 54, 73, 76–77
health harms
air pollution
26, 29n17, 39–40, 42–44, 57, 84
asbestos
30, 32, 136, 136n16
heat-related illnesses
34n22, 49, 54, 73
tobacco
138, 140, 141, 142, 144, 152t
heion-seikatsuken (the right to a peaceful life)
43, 45
hesitations to litigate
110, 111t, 127
highway traffic
28, 28n15, 33, 41, 43, 126
Hilson, Chris
14
history of environmental litigation
11, 13–16, 24–34, 86
Hitachi Copper Mine
25
human rights violation, climate change as
jinkakuken (health-related personal rights)
causal chain
44–45, 54
constitutional protections
15, 21, 70, 90–91
contribution of CCL
124
foreign cases
6–7, 19, 44n31, 64, 82, 121, 133, 140n21, 148, 150t
heion-seikatsuken (the right to a peaceful life)
43, 45
immature recognition
50, 86
Kobe administrative case
91
Kobe civil case
43–44, 91
Youth
37t, 55–56
Hydrogen Society Promotion Act
22–23
Hyogo Prefectural Pollution Examination Board
42
Indonesia
5
industrialization
24–26, 33, 59
Industrial Safety and Inspection Department
38
injunctions
against CFPPs
12, 21, 36t, 42, 44, 55, 62, 82, 117, 117
for pollution
41, 61
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
5, 9, 44, 54–55, 139n20, 146, 148
interview data collection methods
106, 106t, 107–108
IPCC. see Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Ireland
7
Itai-itai Disease
26
Italy
89t
Itochu Corporation
39
Jacob v. Bloom Energy
148–149
Japan
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
8
international criticism on
10, 19
Japan Environmental Lawyers Association
57n66
Japanese National Railways (JNR)
125, 151
Japan Federation of Bar Associations
12, 131
Japan’s Supreme Court
19
JERA
51–54
jinkakuken (health-related personal rights)
definition
159
in history of enviromental litigation
29, 91
Sendai, Kobe, Youth cases
21, 37t, 39, 43–45, 82
JNR (Japanese National Railways)
125, 151
judges
activism/passivism
85–86
criticism on
119, 122
lay judges (saiban-in)
134, 134n11
political influence
87n57, 91
judicial activism
18, 84–85
judicial infrastructure
82–83
judicial passivism
13, 18–19, 85–86, 159
judicial receptiveness
15, 84–86, 91, 92, 121, 134
judicial review
18, 67, 157
Judicial System Reform Council of the Ministry of Justice
94
judiciary. see court system
Juliana
in CCL context
6, 146
resources
79
strategy
15, 70–71, 83, 85, 131n3, 139n20, 148
youth participation
47n41, 62n72, 70
jurisprudence. see case law
justiciability
18, 49, 147–148
Kanden Energy Solution Corporation
39
Kang et al. v. KSURE and KEXIM
82
Kansai Electric Power Company
36t, 37, 39, 41–44
Kanto coastal area
30t
Kidder, Robert
79n26, 95
Kiko Network
financial support
57, 72, 90, 104, 110, 125
leading role
53, 59t
legal support
9–10, 38–39, 52, 57, 57n66
Kim Min et al. v. Kim Tae-Hyun et al.
82
Kinki coastal area
30t
Kivalina v. ExxonMobil
146–147
KlimaSeniorinnen
7, 17
KLM
7
Kobe administrative case
36–37t, 45–51, 59t
attorneys
80
criticism from the public
126
demographics of plaintiffs/supporters
58–59, 62, 97–98t, 99–100, 107, 107t, 114, 115t
expectations
102, 104, 104, 110, 112t, 126
hesitations
110, 111t
interview data collection
106, 106t, 107–108
motivations
102, 105–106, 108–109, 109t, 110, 117, 117, 118
perceptions of litigation
118–126, 118, 119, 120
standing
60, 87, 127
strategy
10, 22, 27, 58–59, 73, 82, 87, 133, 140
survey data collection
96–99, 100–101, 114–116, 114t
Kobe City
9, 42, 48
Kobe civil case
36–37t, 41–45, 59t
demographics of plaintiffs/supporters
58, 97–98t, 99–100, 107, 107t, 114, 115t
expectations
102, 104, 104, 110, 112t, 126
hesitations
110, 111t
interview data collection
106, 106t, 107–108
motivations
102, 105–106, 108–109, 109t, 117, 117, 118, 125
perceptions of litigation
118–126, 118, 119, 120
strategy
10, 21, 27, 59, 82, 84, 87, 133, 140
survey data collection
96–99, 100–101, 114–116, 114t
Kobe District Court
44
KOBELCO Power Kobe
36t, 42–44
Kobe Steel Ltd
36t, 41–44, 84, 110
Koizumi Shinjiro
52
Kyoto District Court
72
Kyoto Protocol
44
lawmaking. see legislation, climate
lay judges (saiban-in)
134, 134n11
legal aid
74, 76t, 77
legal mobilization
14, 64, 67, 86, 89, 133, 159
Legal Opportunity Structure (LOS) framework
14–16, 64–65, 87–92, 92, 159
legal personhood
148, 148n42
legal professionals, availability of
77–78, 79–81, 90, 104, 125, 131–133, 132
legislation, climate
Brazil
81
Japan
22, 26–28, 31, 86, 88–89
South Korea
82–83
United States
81–83, 86
lengthiness of proceedings
Act on the Expediting of Trials
135
as deterrent
94t, 95, 124, 126, 127
perceptions of
104–105, 104, 106, 111–113, 113t
survey data collection
103–104, 108
liability
assigning
32
corporate
55, 81, 148, 149
joint tort
21n9, 26, 43–44, 84
product
138, 142–143, 150t
tort
81, 138n18, 142, 150t, 152t
litigation
administrative litigation; climate change litigation (CCL); environmental litigation; tobacco litigation
Galanter’s four phases of
136, 137, 145, 152
perceptions of
103, 103, 117, 118–126, 118, 119, 120
litigation rates, Japan’s low
11–15
LOS (Legal Opportunity Structure) framework
14–16, 64–65, 87–92, 92, 159
loser-pays rule
81, 133, 155
Lowe v. Reynolds
142
Luciano Lliuya
4n3, 6
Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife
69n10
marine ecosystem damage
52–54
Massachusetts v. EPA
6, 69, 71, 73, 83, 86, 136, 146–147
Mayor/Baltimore v. BP
148
METI. see Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI)
Minamata Disease
26
Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI)
CFPP phase out
10
as defendant
36t, 47
Director-General Meeting Agreement (2013)
8, 37, 44
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
9, 22, 42, 52
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT)
132–133
Ministry of Justice
94, 131
Ministry of the Environment (MOE)
Director-General Meeting Agreement (2013)
8, 37, 44
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
47–48, 47–48n43–45
petitions to
51–52
Miyazawa, Setsuo
79n26, 95
mobilization, legal
14, 64, 67, 86, 89, 133, 159
MOE. see Ministry of the Environment (MOE)
motivations for litigation
interview results
108–110, 109t, 124–125
survey results
93–95, 94t, 101–103, 102, 105–106, 117, 117, 118
municipalities/states as plaintiffs
69, 148, 150t, 152, 152t
Myllyvirta, Lauri
40
Nagashima, Koichi
131
Nagoya
28, 30–31t
Nagoya District Court
56
National Diet
23
National Energy Policy
55–56
National Environmental Policy Act (United States)
81
National Highway No. 43
28n15, 41, 43, 126
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
50–51
Nature Conservation Act
28
negligence
142–143
Netherlands. see Urgenda
net-zero emissions
53, 152, 152t
carbon neutrality pledge (Japan by 2050)
Neubauer et al. v. Germany
7, 138n18
New York v. BP
81, 148
New Zealand
5
NGOs (nongovernmental organizations). see nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
Niigata Minamata Disease
26
Nishi-Yodogawa case
41, 43, 84, 95, 108, 126
nitrogen oxides (NOx)
26, 28, 30t, 57
noise pollution
26, 28n15, 29, 73
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
5, 20, 57, 67, 68t, 71, 77, 88n59, 89–90
Kiko Network
nonprofit organizations (NPOs)
79–80, 79n26, 79, 90
No-Smoking Rights
125, 151
NOx (nitrogen oxides)
26, 30t, 57
NPOs (nonprofit organizations). see nonprofit organizations (NPOs)
Oakland v. BP
148
Odakyu Elevated Railroad. see Citizen Group v. Japan
odor pollution
26, 40n13
Osaka Alkali
25
Osaka District Court
49, 126, 127
Osaka High Court
45, 50, 87, 123
Otsuka, Tadashi
61n70
Our Children’s Trust
79
Paris Agreement (2015)
1.5 °C target
8, 9, 22, 45, 54–56
effects on CCL
4, 146, 148
incompatibility with
10, 36–37t, 48, 50
participation, citizens’
youth participation
diminishing over time
99n7
lay judges (saiban-in)
134, 134n11
legislation
88–89, 88n59
litigation (activists)
13, 29, 84–85, 89, 98t, 99, 105, 114, 115t, 135
passivism, judicial
13, 18–19, 85–86, 159
People’s Climate Case
47n41, 62, 62n72
People’s Climate Vote
88
People v. Exxon Mobil
149
perceptions of litigation
103, 103, 117, 118–126, 118, 119, 120
perceptions of the court system
120–122, 120
petitions
42–43, 51
phase-out
decarbonization
CFPPs
10, 56, 117, 123
higher-emission vehicles
70
phases of litigation, Galanter’s four
136, 137, 145, 152
Philip Morris
143–145
plaintiffs, types of
activists; citizens; youth participation
academics
39–40, 58, 59t, 99–100
demographics
58–59, 62, 97–98t, 99–100, 105, 107, 107t, 114, 115t
group size
62
municipalities and states
69, 148, 150t, 152, 152t
residents
37–39, 41–43, 45, 73, 99–100, 105, 107, 107t
responsible for harms
143, 149, 149n47
plaintiffs’ experiences
motivations for litigation
deterrents
90n61, 94t, 95, 124–126
expectations
93, 95, 102–106, 102, 104, 110–112, 112t, 126
hesitations
110, 111t, 127
perceptions of litigation
103, 103, 117, 118–126, 118, 119, 120
PM2.5
absence of assessment
44, 49, 53
claims combined with greenhouse gas emissions
57, 84, 127
definition
34n23
health impacts
39–40, 43
Polar Bear
57n66
pollution
air pollution; antipollution litigation
methylmercury poisoning
26
noise
26, 28n15, 29, 73
odor
26, 40n13
waste
30–33, 52–53
pollution control agreements
25, 25n2, 38–40, 40n13, 119, 126
Pollution Dispute Resolution Agency
42n25
“Pollution Parliament”
86
population increase
30–31t
precedents
15–16, 58, 64, 70, 90, 123, 137–138, 142, 149
prevention of harm
6, 9, 21, 27, 33, 40n13, 61, 77, 145
pro bono work
79–81, 90, 104
product liability
138, 142–143, 150t
public awareness
increased through litigation
123, 133, 135, 145, 149, 150t, 152, 152t
increased through scientific evidence
138, 139t
lack of
126–127, 134–135
as motivation for litigation
91, 96, 101, 111
questionnaires
160–178
survey data collection methods
recognition
of carbon dioxide (CO₂) as a pollutant
21, 57n66, 69, 136
of climate change as human rights violation
50, 86
of climate crisis
88, 89t
redressability
69–71, 83
regulation of emissions
legislation, climate
insufficient
7–8
international
31
pollution control agreements
25, 25n2, 38–40, 40n13, 119, 126
shift in social norms
138
sought in CCL
41, 84, 126, 157
renewable energy
10, 82, 88, 126
residents
failure to notify
43, 52
plaintiffs
37–39, 41–43, 45, 73, 99–100, 105, 107, 107t
reluctance to litigate
77
standing
46, 46n39, 60, 73
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
71
resources, availability of
Kiko Network
Japan vs. other countries
74, 76t, 77–81, 78, 79, 90, 133
legal aid
74, 76t, 77
legal professionals
77–81, 90, 104, 125, 131–133, 132
loser-pays rule
81, 133, 155
nonprofit organizations (NPOs)
78–80, 79
plaintiffs’ individual
76–77, 100, 104, 110, 122, 124, 142–143
rights. see constitutional rights, violation of; heion-seikatsuken (the right to a peaceful life); human rights violation, climate change as; jinkakuken (health-related personal rights)
rights of future generations
7, 61n70, 83, 148
Rio Declaration (1992)
31, 66
Royal Dutch Shell
7
Sakamoto v. Japan
72
San Mateo v. Chevron
148
Securities-Related Class Action Act (South Korea)
72
Sendai
36–37t, 36–41, 59t
demographics of plaintiffs/supporters
58, 62, 97–98t, 99–100, 107, 107t, 114, 115t
expectations
102, 104, 104, 105, 110, 111, 112t, 126
hesitations
110, 111t
interview data collection
106, 106t, 107–108
motivations
102, 103, 105–106, 108, 109t, 110, 117, 117, 118, 124
perceptions of litigation
103, 103, 118–126, 118, 119, 120
strategy
21, 59, 82, 90, 140
survey data collection
96–99, 100–101, 114–116, 114t
Sendai City
9, 38, 39
Sendai District Court
40, 99
Sendai High Court
40
Sendai Power Station Company
9, 36t, 37–39
Setzer, Joana
15, 64, 124
SFOC et al. v. Minister of Health and Welfare
82
Shisaka-Jima
25n2
Simplified Replacement Assessment Guidelines
51–55
SLAPP-type claims
157, 157n2
social impact, expectations about
58, 103–104, 110, 112t, 126
social movements
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); nonprofit organizations (NPOs)
antipollution
26–27, 29, 86
antitobacco vs. climate
138
definition
14
global
91
likelihood to pursue legal mobilization
14, 64, 89
social norms, shift in
138, 139t
Society for the Study of the Civil Procedural System
94
solidarity
104–106, 108–109, 109t, 110, 117, 117, 124
South Africa
9, 9n18, 89t, 90
South Korea
13, 65, 72, 80, 82–83
Do-Hyun Kim et al. v. South Korea
SOx (sulfur oxides)
26, 30t, 57
standing
antipollution litigation
49, 54, 57, 70, 90, 127
based on right to be free from climate-related harm
48–49, 87
consumer organization collective litigation system
131
definition
159
Environmental Impact Assessment Act (EIA Act)
48–49, 54–55
future generations
61
geographic scope
60–61, 60t
Japan vs. other countries
67, 69t, 72–73, 89–90, 129–131
levels
68t
LOS framework
65, 92
NGOs
20, 57, 67, 68t, 71, 79, 89–90
redressability
69–71, 83
rejected
43, 50, 54, 90, 127
relaxing requirements
66, 129–131
residents
46, 46n39, 60, 73
United States
65, 67–73, 89–90
states/municipalities as plaintiffs
69, 148, 150t, 152, 152t
statutes. see legislation, climate
Stockholm Declaration (1972)
28
Suga, Yoshihide
10, 87
sulfur oxides (SOx)
26, 28, 30t, 57
Sumitomo Metal Mining Co.
25n2
support, legal/financial. see resources, availability of
supporters
114, 114t, 115, 117–118, 122
Supreme Court
Colombia
148n42
Dutch
6, 133
Florida
145
Japan
19, 72–73, 82, 85–86, 85n51, 136
United States
69, 85, 136, 143, 146, 148
survey data collection methods
Civil Litigation Survey
93–94
present study
96–99, 100–101, 114–116, 114t, 160–178
sustainability
31–32
renewable energy
Taishin-in (later: Supreme Court)
25
Supreme Court
Tanaka, Shozo
24
The Access Initiative (TAI)
67
Thomson
47n41, 62n72
Tilly, Charles
14
tobacco litigation
135–145, 137, 139t, 143, 149–153, 150t, 152t
Tohoku
38–39
Tokyo
28, 30–31t, 37–38, 133
Tokyo Bay
51
Tokyo District Court
53–54, 57, 57n66
Tokyo Electric Power Company Fuel and Power (TEPCO Fuel and Power)
51–52
Tokyo Factory Pollution Control Ordinance
26
Tokyo High Court
54
Tokyo Metropolitan Government Ordinance on Environmental Impact Assessment
73
tort
21, 44, 136, 147–148
joint liability
21n9, 26, 43–44, 84
liability
81, 138n18, 142, 149, 150t, 152t
traffic. see highway traffic
transparency
7, 122, 135, 148–149
disclosure
trial length. see lengthiness of proceedings
trias politica
15, 18, 85, 159
Trump administration (2017–2021)
86
unconstitutionality
18–19, 159
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme)
88
United Kingdom
5, 12–13, 20, 89t
United Nations
7, 10
Aarhus Convention (1998)
20, 66–67, 73–74
Convention on the Rights of the Child
56
Development Programme (UNDP)
88
Environment Programme (UNEP)
4
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
146
Rio Declaration (1992)
31, 66
Stockholm Declaration (1972)
28
United States
Juliana; Massachusetts v. EPA
CCL
4, 81, 86, 145–151, 147, 150t
citizen suits
67, 71–72, 85, 133
constitutional rights, violation of
70, 148
emissions
146, 147
judicial infrastructure
83
judicial receptiveness
85, 91
nonprofit organizations (NPOs)
78–80, 79n26, 79, 90
resources, availability of
74, 76t, 77–80, 78, 90, 133
standing
65, 67–73, 89, 90
statutes/climate legislation
81–82, 81–82n38, 86
Supreme Court
69, 85, 136, 143, 146, 148
tobacco litigation
135–145, 137, 139t, 143, 149–153, 150t, 152t
tobacco production and consumption
141t, 141
urbanization
28, 30–31t, 33, 59
Urgenda
6, 62, 133, 138n18, 139n20, 140n21, 157
Vanhala, Lisa
14
vulnerable populations
33, 49, 54, 73, 76–77
waste
30–33, 52–53
weather. see disasters, natural and climate-change related; extreme weather events
Woodpecker et al. v. South Korea
83
World Resources Institute (WRI)
67
World War II
11, 18, 25, 25n1
World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
137
Yokkaichi case
26, 44, 84
Yokosuka
36–37t, 51–55, 59t
demographics of plaintiffs/supporters
58–59, 97–98t, 99–100, 107, 107t, 114, 115t
expectations
102, 104–106, 104, 110–112, 112t
hesitations
110, 111t, 127
interview data collection
106, 106t, 107–108
motivations
102, 103, 105, 108–109, 109t, 110, 117, 118, 124–125
perceptions of litigation
103, 103, 117–126, 118, 119, 120
strategy
10, 22, 53, 59, 60, 73, 82, 140
survey data collection
96–99, 100–101, 114–116, 114t
Yokosuka Bay
52
Yokosuka City
9
Youth
demographics of plaintiffs/supporters
58–59
strategy
10, 21, 45, 58–60, 82
summary
36–37t, 55–56, 59t
youth participation
barriers
95, 100
foreign cases
47n41, 62, 62n72, 70, 83
Japanese cases
46–47, 54–55, 58–59, 59t
zero-carbon targets. see carbon neutrality pledge (Japan by 2050); net-zero emissions