Index of Names and Subjects
abortion
cannibalism metaphor
consent requirements see See Informed consent; Spousal consent
coerced see See Coerced abortion
definition and terminology
duotai (堕胎 dropping foetus-placenta)
eugenic policies and
family planning and
gender-selective
in Chinese history
abortion-in-assault (dou ou 斗殴)
Criminal Law (1979)
Early Republican and Nationalist China (1912–1949)
Imperial China, pre-modern period
Maoist era (1949–1978)
Ming and Qing codes
New Criminal Code Temporarily in Force (Zanxing xin xinglü)
Reform and Opening-Up period (1978–2021)
Tang Code
legal status in China
legislation (PRC)
and religion(s)
repeat abortions
rengong liuchan (人工流产 artificial slippery delivery)
rengong yinchan (人工引产 induced birth/labour)
rengong zhongzhi renshen (人工终止妊娠 induced interruption of pregnancy)
rights see See Abortion rights
sex-selective see See Foetal sex determination
spousal consent requirements
surgical abortion timing limits
techniques and procedures
and traditional Chinese medicine
zhuitai (坠胎 falling/dropping a foetus-placenta)
abortion rights
husband’s consent requirement
informed consent principle
married vs. unmarried women
reproductive autonomy
spousal consent debates
widow’s reproductive rights
administrative regulations
enforcement challenges
surrogacy prohibition
adoption
frozen embryo disputes and
in traditional Chinese family law
surrogacy compared to
aging population see See Demographic crisis
Ahern, Emily
All-China Women’s Association
altruistic surrogacy
UK approach
Chinese legal scholars’ support for
distinguished from commercial
international approaches
proposed legalization in Taiwan
Amodei, Dario
ancestor worship
Aquinas, Thomas
Aristotle
artificial insemination See also Human Assisted Reproduction Technology
artificial wombs
assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) see See Human Assisted Reproduction Technology
autonomy principle
in bioethics
Chinese interpretation
informed consent and
PAR context
reproductive autonomy see See Reproductive rights
vs. beneficence in Chinese context
vs. respect (zunzhong)
Basic Standards for Human Sperm Bank (2003) (BSHSB 2003)
Beauchamp, Tom L See also Four Principles of Bioethics
Beijing Fengtai Court case (2024, RIVF)
beneficence principle
in abortion debates
in bioethics
in HART regulation
priority over autonomy in China
youli (有利
best interest of the child principle
UN Convention on Rights of the Child
application in custody cases
Chen Yin v. Luo Ronggeng case
in Chinese law
ECtHR jurisprudence
frozen embryo cases and
San Menxia case application
surrogacy context
theory (ertong zuida liyi lun 儿童最大利益伦)
vs. public order
bioethics
American model
Chinese characteristics
contemporary Chinese development
education in China
European model
four principles framework
shengming lunlixue (生命伦理学)
Western influence on Chinese thought
birth control see See Family planning; Population policy
birth theory (分娩伦 fenmian lun) – determination of motherhood
application in surrogacy cases
Chen Yin case application
custody determination and
definition
Huli District case application
Limitations
bloodline theory (血缘伦, xueyuan lun) – determination of motherhood
custody determination and
definition
importance in Chinese culture
traditional family law and
Brown, Louise (first IVF baby)
Buddhism
abortion perspectives
bioethics and
concept of life
karma and rebirth
medical ethics influence
retribution concepts
Sun Simiao’s integration
Cambodia (surrogacy ban)
cannibalism metaphor (abortion discourse)
Cao Weiwei
care ethics
feminist perspective
surrogate mothers and
case law (Chinese)
access restrictions
China Judgments Online (CJO)
inconsistency problems
judicial transparency rollback
Supreme People’s Court role
typical cases (dianxing anli 典型案例)
Catholic Church
abortion position
ensoulment doctrine
hominisation concept
Central Committee for Birth Control (1957)
Chan, Fruit (film director)
Chen Guangcheng (陈光诚)
Chen Kaige (film director)
Chen Minzhang (陈敏章)
Chen Yin v. Luo Ronggeng case (2016)
as exemplary case
custody determination
facts
stepparent-child relationship recognition
childlessness
as violation of filial piety
stigma
surrogacy as solution
Childress, James F See also Four Principles of Bioethics
China Judgments Online (CJO)
Chinese legal system
Civil Code (2020)
comparative law methodology
Constitution see See Constitution of PRC
Criminal Law see See Criminal Law (PRC)
Cryptotypes
formants theory
General Principles of Civil Law (1986)
guiding cases (zhidao anli 指导案例)
heqing heli hefa (合情合理合法)
judicial philosophy, socialist
legal transplants
legislative formant
legislative inertia
path dependency
san ge zhishang (三个至上, Three Supremes)
typical cases (dianxing anli 典型案例)
Chinese traditional culture
ancestor worship
concubinage
dian qi (典妻, pawning wife)
double motherhood concept
family continuity
filial piety (xiao 孝)
hun (魂) and po (魄) souls
patrilineal family structure
Placenta God belief
qi (气, vital energy)
seven grounds for divorce
xueyuan yuanxu (血缘延续, blood continuation)
zisun mantang (子孙满堂, sons and grandsons fill the hall)
Civil Code (PRC, 2020)
Article 3 (personal rights protection)
Article 8 (public order and morals)
Article 16 (foetal rights)
Article 153 (public order violations)
Article 1006 (organ donation)
Article 1009 (human genes and embryos)
Article 1053 (marriage and illness)
Article 1071 (illegitimate children)
Article 1072(2) (stepparent relationship)
Article 1073 (maternity/paternity claims)
enactment
cloning
Criminal Law prohibition (2020)
He Jiankui case
prohibition in Chinese regulations
“wisdom of repugnance” (Kass)
coerced abortion
Chen Guangcheng case
Cultural Revolution period
Fei Jianmei case (2012)
one-child policy enforcement
Uyghur population
commercial surrogacy
ban enforcement efforts
banned practices
Chinese scholars’ views
criminalization debates
definition
distinguished from altruistic
face recognition surveillance
government campaigns against
illegal detention charges related to
market size in China
prohibition in Chinese regulations
Qiu and Meng’s arguments for
underground industry
Zheng Shuang scandal
comparative law
Chinese legal scholarship and
embryo legal status
European legal systems influence
formants theory (Sacco)
frozen embryo cases
international approaches to surrogacy
legal transplants
methodology
PAR approaches
Western Legal Tradition (WLT)
compassionate judgments (wenqing panjue 温情判决)
concubinage (qie 妾)
historical practice in China
multiple motherhood and
natural vs. ritual mother
Confucianism
abortion perspectives
education and motherhood
family concepts
filial piety (xiao 孝)
junzi (君子, noble man)
medical ethics
PAR context
reproductive obligations
ren (仁, benevolence/humaneness)
Sino-Confucian societies
taijiao (胎教, education of foetus)
yi (义, righteousness)
Cong Yali (丛亚丽)
consent see See informed consent; spousal consent
constitution of PRC
1954 Constitution, Article 96 (gender equality)
1978 Constitution, Article 53 (family planning)
1982 Constitution, Article 49.2 (family planning duty)
Article 33.3 (human rights)
contract theory (qiyue lun 契约伦) – determination of motherhood
custody determination and
definition
surrogacy agreements validity
contraception
condom availability
Methods on Contraception and Abortion (1953)
sterilization practices
Council of Europe
Oviedo Convention (1997)
Criminal Law (PRC)
1979 Criminal Law, absence of abortion provisions
1997 amendment, sexual crimes
2020 amendment, Article 136 (genetic editing)
Article 225 (illegal business operations)
Article 234 (organ trafficking)
Article 318 (illegal border crossing)
Article 336 (illegal medical practice)
Article 336(1) (genetic editing)
Article 358 et seq. (prostitution)
principle of legality
surrogacy non-criminalization
Tang Code
cross-border surrogacy see See Reproductive tourism; Transnational surrogacy
cryopreservation
egg freezing restrictions
embryo storage
sperm banks See also Frozen embryos
cryptotypes
formants theory and
patrilineal succession as
surrogacy and traditional practices
Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
birth control disruption
coerced abortion during
sexual morality
“ten years of catastrophe” (shinian haojie 十年浩劫)
custody disputes
best interest of child principle
birth theory application
bloodline theory application
Chen Yin v. Luo Ronggeng case
contract theory application
divorce cases
frozen embryo cases
Huli District case
inconsistency in decisions
lesbian couples
multiple motherhood recognition
RIVF cases
same-sex couples
stepparent-child relationship
surrogacy cases
theories applied
Yixin case
daiji zhengyi (代际正义, intergenerational justice)
Daoism
abortion perspectives
bioethics and
embryo development concepts
medical philosophy
natural processes respect
Dati (plaintiff in Huli case)
Davis v. Davis (1992, USA )
death
brain death criteria
definition debates
post-mortem reproduction see See Posthumous Assisted Reproduction
si (死) concept
demographic crisis
aging population
birth rate decline
fertility rate targets
one-child policy impact
population decline (2022)
sex ratio imbalance
surrogacy as response
three-child policy response
two-child policy response
demographic policy (PRC)
2021–2030 Programme
2021–2030 Women and Children Programme
aging population concerns
birth rate decline
family planning history
fertility rate targets
14th Five-Year Plan
“late, sparse and few” (wan xi shao 晚稀少)
one-child policy
pronatalist policies (1949–1979)
pronatalist shift (2020s)
sex ratio imbalance
three-child policy (2021)
two-child policy (2015)
Deng Bihai (邓必海)
Deng Xiaoping (邓小平)
destination jurisdictions (surrogacy)
dian qi (典妻, pawning wife)
historical practice
legal prohibition
as mortgage arrangement
Yuan dynasty prohibition
dignity, human
deceased persons and
foetal rights and
Kantian concept
PAR debates and
posthumous reproduction and
reproductive technologies and
surrogacy debates and
surrogate mothers and
zunyan (尊严)
Western vs. Chinese concepts
divorce cases
abortion as factor
custody disputes
reproductive rights disputes
Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization (2022)
decision
embryo legal status impact
PRC criticism
Dongkou District People’s Court (surrogacy case)
double motherhood (shuang muqin)
Beijing Fengtai case recognition
concubinage and
legal recognition
Liu Guanghe’s proposal
traditional concept
Dumplings (film, 2004)
Eastern approach (surrogacy)
education
Confucian view of motherhood and
sex education
taijiao (胎教, foetal education)
egg banks
egg freezing
restrictions for single women See also Cryopreservation
embryo
“best interests of the embryo”
chengxing (成形, human form)
Chinese terminology
Civil Code Article 16 application to frozen
developmental stages
foetal ghosts (yingling 婴灵)
foetal rights extension to
frozen see See Frozen embryos
genetic editing prohibition
legal status debates
ownership theories
Placenta God belief
property vs. person debates
San Menxia case recognition
“special object with personal interests” (you renge liyi de teshu wu 有人格利益的特殊物)
tai (胎, embryo/foetus/placenta)
TCM understanding
Yixin case status determination See also Foetus; Frozen embryos
Embryo Protection Law (Germany, ESchG 1990)
end-of-life decisions
ensoulment
Catholic doctrine
Chinese concepts compared
Hominisation
Islamic concepts
timing debates
Ethical Principles for Implementation of HART and Sperm Bank (2003) (EPIHARTSB 2003)
beneficence principle
confidentiality principle
four principles influence
informed consent requirement
non-commercialization principle
prohibition on single women
protection of offspring principle
public interest principle
respect principle
supervision principle
eugenics
abortion relationship
Eugenic Health Law (Taiwan)
genetic screening
marriage restrictions
Maternal and Infant Health Care Law provisions
pronatalist policies and
“quality birth control” (yousheng youyu 优生优育)
Republican era proposals
Uyghur population targeting
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
best interest of child case jurisprudence
Chinese legal scholarship references
Mennesson v. France
Petithory Lanzmann v. France
public order vs. children’s rights
surrogacy jurisprudence
euthanasia
exploitation
reproductive tourism and
surrogacy concerns
surrogate mothers
vulnerable women
face recognition surveillance (surrogacy enforcement)
family
complete family concept
Confucian concepts
Constitutional protection
jiating (家庭)
patrilineal structure
reproductive obligations
single-parent families
as “social cell”
traditional structure
family continuity
bloodline importance
frozen embryo disputes and
grandparents’ interests
PAR justification
patrilineal descent
surrogacy justification
traditional importance
Yixin case and
family planning
abortion relationship
Central Committee for Birth Control (1957)
coercion and enforcement
Commission (1964)
Constitutional provisions
enforcement mechanisms
household responsibility contracts
jihua shengyu (计划生育)
local implementation variations
Marriage Law provisions (1980)
Measures on Contraception and Abortion (1953)
methods and slogans
National Family Planning Commission
“only one child is good” (zhi sheng yige hao 只生一个好)
Population and Family Planning Law (2001)
propaganda campaigns
State Council Family Planning Commission
“two children per couple is enough” See also Demographic policy; One-child policy; Population policy
Fan Ruiping (范瑞平)
Fei Jianmei (冯建梅, forced abortion case)
feminism
care ethics perspective
Chinese feminist activism
critiques of abortion restrictions
reproductive rights advocacy
surrogacy debates within
fertility preservation (FP)
filial piety (xiao 孝)
abortion context
childlessness as violation
Confucian concept
PAR justification
reproductive obligations and
“three cardinal sins” (buxiao you san wu hou weida 不孝有三无后为大)
traditional obligations
foetal development
chengxing (成形, assuming human form)
ensoulment timing
gestational stages
hun (魂) and po (魄) souls
TCM understanding
foetal ghosts (yingling 婴灵)
foetal rights
Civil Code Article 16
extension to embryos
frozen embryo cases
protection debates
San Menxia case extension
vs. maternal rights
foetal sex determination
gender-selective abortion
Nanchang Regulations
prenatal diagnosis prohibition (1986)
Regulation (2002, 2016)
sex ratio imbalance and
ultrasound restrictions
foetus
external value (waizai jiazhi 外在价值)
foetal ghosts (yingling 婴灵)
intrinsic value
legal capacity
legal status historical evolution
moral status debates
ontological status (Qiu Renzong)
personhood debates
Qiu Renzong’s theory
“right to be born”
as stage in development
tai (胎 embryo/foetus/placenta) See also Embryo
forced abortion see See coerced abortion
forced sterilization
formants theory (Sacco)
application to Chinese law
cryptotypes
interaction in surrogacy law
legal transplants and
legislative formant
Foucault, Michel
Four Principles of Bioethics (Beauchamp & Childress)
autonomy
beneficence
Chinese adaptation
hierarchy modification in China
justice
Four Principles of Bioethics (cont.)
non-maleficence
PAR analysis using
respect vs. autonomy
14th Five-Year Plan (fertility policies)
France
Code de la Santé Publique
informed consent requirements
Mennesson v. France (ECtHR)
PAR prohibition and debate
single women HART access (2021)
surrogacy prohibition
Frankenstein (Shelley)
free market approach (surrogacy)
California example
former destinations
United States
frozen embryos
UK approach
Article 16 CC application
case law statistics
Chen Yin v. Luo Ronggeng case
custody disputes
Davis v. Davis (USA )
disposal regulations
foetal rights extension
French approach
German approach
grandparents’ custody claims
inheritance issues
informed consent for disposal
legal status
Li Qingyan case
ownership theories
PAR cases involving
post-mortem use
San Menxia case
storage duration
Tan Huiping case
US approaches
Vietnam disposal rule
widow’s access
Ya Chunli case
Yang Yonghui case
Yixin case
York v. Jones (USA )
Zou Mouling case See also Embryo; Posthumous Assisted Reproduction
fametes
commercialization prohibition
donation regulations
ownership debates
post-mortem retrieval
storage see See CryopreservationSee also Egg freezing; Sperm banks
Gao Wei case (Nanjing, surrogacy)
gender equality
Constitution provisions
Dobbs decision PRC criticism
reproductive rights context
Women’s Congress (2023) and
gender selection see See Foetal sex determination; Sex ratio
General Principles of Civil Law (1986)
Article 153 (public order)
embryo disputes under
foetal rights absence
genetic editing
Criminal Law prohibition (2020)
He Jiankui scandal
genetic screening
eugenic policies
marriage requirements
Maternal and Infant Health Care Law provisions
prenatal diagnosis
Germany
Embryo Protection Law (ESchG, 1990)
frozen embryo approach
Neubrandenburg case (2010)
PAR prohibition
Yixin case comparison
zygote legal status
gestational surrogacy
custody disputes
definition
distinguished from traditional surrogacy
first birth in PRC (1996)
parent-child relationship determination
RIVF as type
Yixin case sequel
Ginsburg, Ruth Bader
“Glorious mothers” (guangrong muqin 光荣母亲)
gongzheng (公正, justice)
grandparents
embryo custody claims
emotional interests
Israeli cases
PAR consent role
post-mortem reproduction interests
right to become grandparents debate
Yixin case
Great Leap Forward (Da yuejin 大跃进, 1958–1960)
Greater China (surrogacy regulation)
Hong Kong
Macao
Taiwan
Greenhalgh, Susan
Grene, Marjorie
Guangzhou
family planning measures
octuplets incident (2011)
HART see See Human Assisted Reproduction Technology
He Jiankui (贺建奎, gene editing scandal)
“heart factor” (PAR cases)
Heqing heli hefa (合情合理合法)
principle explanation
socialist judicial philosophy and
Yixin case application
Hippocratic Oath
hominisation
Hong Fincher, Leta
Hong Kong
Human Reproductive Technology Ordinance (2000)
prohibition on commercial surrogacy
prohibition on single women
tolerant approach to surrogacy
household responsibility contracts (jiating lianchan chengbao hetong 家庭联产承包合同)
Hu Xinxian (胡幸贤) see See Yixin case
Hua Guofeng (华国锋)
Huli District People’s Court case (2020, RIVF)
Beijing Fengtai case compared
custody denial to genetic mother
facts
judgment
same-sex relationship non-recognition
Human Assisted Reproduction Technology (HART)
administrative framework
artificial insemination
Basic Standards for Human Sperm Bank (2003)
commercialization prohibition
cryopreservation techniques
definition
development in PRC
donor limitations
egg banks
Ethical Principles (2001, 2003)
family interests consideration
first IVF birth in PRC (1988)
four principles influence
frozen embryo transfers
institutional licensing
intergenerational justice consideration
intracytoplasmic sperm injection (1996)
IVF-embryo transfer
Human Assisted Reproduction (cont.)
Louise Brown (first IVF baby, 1978)
Measures on Administration (2001)
ministerial regulation level
National Health Commission role
Notice on Revision (2003)
oocyte donation
one-child policy impact
PAR regulation absence
posthumous use prohibition
prohibited practices
public interest consideration
regulatory framework
single women prohibition
sperm banks
sterilization reversal through
surrogacy prohibition
Technical Specifications (2001, 2003)
“three frozen” baby (2006)
widow access issues See also Posthumous Assisted Reproduction; Surrogacy
human dignity see See Dignity, human
human rights
abortion rights as
Constitution Article 33.3
reproductive autonomy
surrogacy debates invoking
U.S. criticism by PRC
Hun (魂) and po (魄) souls
husband’s consent see See Spousal consent
India
grandparents’ sperm retrieval case
surrogacy ban (2021)
Surrogacy Act (2021)
as former destination jurisdiction
infanticide
decriminalization history
European context
imperial codes
one-child policy era
infertility
as filial impiety
increasing rates in China
repeated abortion impact
sterilization reversal
treatment justification
as surrogacy justification
informed consent
abortion context
deceased persons and
embryo disposal
French law requirements
HART requirements
PAR context
principle in bioethics
Protection of Women’s Rights Law Article 21.3
spousal consent vs.
zhixing tongyi (知性同意)
inheritance
embryo disputes
frozen embryo custody and
Law of Successions Article 3(7)
San Menxia case and
intergenerational justice (daiji zhengyi 代际正义)
HART consideration
PAR debates and
international surrogacy see See Reproductive tourism; Transnational surrogacy
In vitro fertilization (IVF) see See Human Assisted Reproduction Technology
Islam
abortion perspectives
ensoulment concepts
Quran on human creation
Israel
grandparents’ post-mortem reproduction
National Guideline for Posthumous Reproduction (2003)
regulatory approach to surrogacy
Japan
abortion consent requirements
PAR cases
post-mortem paternity issues
Sino-Confucian tradition
surrogacy regulation absence
Jiating (家庭, family)
Jiating lianchan chengbao hetong (家庭联产承包合同, household responsibility contracts)
Jihua shengyu (计划生育, family planning)
Judicial philosophy, socialist
“compassionate judgments” (wenqing panjue 温情判决)
guofa tianli renqing (国法天理人情)
heqing heli hefa (合情合理合法)
New Era interpretation
public opinion role
San Menxia case and
san ge zhishang (三个至上, Three Supremes)
Yixin case and
Judaism
abortion perspectives
Exodus 21
Talmud on foetal status
Junzi (君子, noble man)
Justice principle
in bioethics
gongzheng (公正)
intergenerational justice (daiji zhengyi 代际正义)
Kant, Immanuel
Categorical Imperative
human dignity
Kass, Leon
“wisdom of repugnance”
Kong Huiyuan (孔慧媛)
Korea (South)
Ethical Guidelines on Assisted Reproduction (2011)
PAR regulation absence
Sino-Confucian tradition
surrogacy non-binding guidelines
Laos
Criminal Code Article 215 (surrogacy)
as former surrogacy destination
surrogacy ban (2023)
Yixin case sequel
“Late, sparse and few” (wan xi shao 晚稀少)
Law of Successions (PRC)
Lee, Lillian (李碧华)
legal formants see See Formants theory
legal transplants
bioethical principles as
formants theory and
methodology
LePage v. Center for Reproductive Medicine (2024, Alabama)
lesbian couples
Beijing Fengtai Court case (2024)
custody disputes involving
Huli District case (2020)
LGBTQ+ movement victories
reproductive rights
Reciprocal IVF (RIVF) cases
same-sex marriage prohibition impact
left-over women (shengnü 剩女)
LGBTQ+ rights
custody battles and
same-sex marriage prohibition
surrogacy access for
Li Haonan (李浩南)
Li Hsin-yu (李欣瑜, Taiwan PAR case)
Li Lei (李磊)
Li Qingyan case (2020, Wenzhou)
Li Yan (李琰)
Lin Yun-Hsien Diana
Liu Bibo (刘碧波)
Liu Changqi (刘长秋)
Liu Guanghe (刘冠合)
Liu Jinfa (刘金法) see See Yixin case
Liu Shaoqi (刘少奇)
Liu Xi (刘熙) see See Yixin case
Liu Yinliang
local regulations
abortion restrictions
family planning implementation
Guangdong Province
Guangzhou Municipality
Hunan Province
Jiangxi Province
Nanchang Municipality
surrogacy enforcement
variations and inconsistencies
Louise Brown (first IVF baby)
Lu Xun (鲁迅)
Ma Yinchu (马寅初)
Macao
Civil Code provisions on surrogacy
prohibitive approach to surrogacy
Malthusian theory
Mao Zedong (毛泽东)
abortion policy
family planning attitudes
population views
marriage
eugenic restrictions
genetic screening requirements
Marriage Law (1950, 1980, 2001)
premarital examination
reproductive prerequisites
same-sex marriage prohibition See also Divorce cases; Spousal consent
Marriage Law (PRC)
1950 version, Article 5(3) (disease prohibition)
1980 version, Article 2 (family planning)
2001 revision, disease provisions
2011 SPC Interpretation
Marx, Karl
Marxism (Chinese)
ethical framework
population views
Maternal and Infant Health Care Law (Muying baojian fa 母婴保健法) MIHCL
1994 enactment
Article 19 (abortion)
Article 32 (sex determination prohibition)
eugenic provisions
forced abortion context
genetic disease provisions
premarital examination
revision (2009, 2017)
Matignon, Jean Jacques
Measures on Administration of HART (2001) (MAHART 2001)
Article 3 (surrogacy prohibition)
Article 22 (sanctions)
content
departmental regulation status
surrogacy prohibition
medical ethics
Buddhism influence
Confucian influence
Daoist influence
Hippocratic tradition
Sun Simiao’s “Absolute Sincerity” (Dayin jin Cheng 大医精诚)
traditional Chinese
Zhang Gao’s “Medical Compendium” (Yi Shuo 医说)
Mellors Rodriguez, Sarah
Mennesson v. France (ECtHR 2014)
Meng Fanzhuan (孟范专)
Ministry of Health (MoH)
Establishment
HART regulations (2001–2003)
merger into NHFPC (2013)
multi-departmental coordination
PAR case intervention (2004)
Minors Protection Law (Wei chengnianren baohu fa 未成年人保护法) MPL
Article 4 (best interest principle)
Miscarriage (xiaochan 小产, liuchan 流产)
Mo Yan (莫言), Frog (2009)
Mohism
ethical principles
motherhood
biological vs. social
concubinage and
Confucian view of education and
“glorious mothers” (guangrong muqin 光荣母亲)
multiple see See Double motherhood
ritual vs. natural mother (dimu 嫡母)
stepparent relationship see See stepparent-child relationship
surrogate see See Surrogate mothers
yang (养, nurture) vs. sheng (生, give birth)
multiple motherhood see See Double motherhood
Nanchang Regulations (foetal sex determination)
National Health and Family Planning Commission (NHFPC)
establishment (2013)
Notice on Illegal HART (2017)
Notice (2023)
National Health Commission (NHC)
creation (2018)
multi-departmental coordination
National Women’s Congress (2023)
Neubrandenburg case (2010, Germany)
facts
“heart factor” application
Judgment
Yixin case comparison
zygote legal status
Nie Jing-Bao (聂精保)
9.25 Open Letter (1980, one-child policy)
non-maleficence principle
in abortion debates
in bioethics
in HART regulation
one-child policy
9.25 Open Letter (1980)
abandonment (2015)
coerced abortion
criticism and controversies
economic enforcement
household responsibility contracts
impact on HART development
infanticide and
octuplets incident (2011)
origins and implementation
population decline following
sex ratio impact
Song Jian’s role
“Only one child is good” (zhi sheng yige hao 只生一个好)
Oviedo Convention (1997)
PAR see See Posthumous Assisted Reproduction
parent-child relationship
bloodline theory
birth theory
contract theory
determination in surrogacy cases
illegitimate children status
maternity/paternity confirmation (Article 1073 CC)
multiple motherhood
stepparent relationship
Supreme People’s Court guidelines
Parental Order system (UK )
parties-intention theory (danshiren yise lun 当事人意思伦) – determination of motherhood see See contract theory
patriarchy
family structure
reproductive control
surrogacy context
patrilineal descent
cryptotype as
family structure
PAR justification
patrilineal descent (cont.)
reproductive obligations and
surrogacy context
traditional importance
Petithory Lanzmann v. France (ECtHR 2019)
personhood
embryo status debates
foetal personhood
Qiu Renzong’s definition
placenta
embryo integration concept (TCM)
Placenta God belief
Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)
Poland
Anti-Abortion Act (1993)
Constitutional Tribunal decision (2020)
Population and Family Planning Law (Renkou yu jihua shengyu fa 人口与计划生育法)
2001 enactment
2015 amendment (two-child policy)
2021 amendment (three-child policy)
Article 17 (reproductive rights)
Article 18 (birth limits)
Article 30/35 (premarital healthcare)
Article 37 (infertility treatment)
Article 39 (sex determination prohibition)
surrogacy prohibition debate
population growth
birth rate decline (2020s)
demographic peaks
Great Leap Forward impact
negative growth (2022)
targets and control
population policy see See Demographic policy; Family planning
Post-mortem reproduction see See Posthumous Assisted Reproduction
Posthumous Assisted Reproduction (PAR)
UK approach
autonomy vs. respect debates
bioethical debates (Chinese)
case law analysis
child’s interests considerations
comparative law analysis
consent requirements
contemporary Chinese bioethics and
dead husband’s wishes
deceased’s rights
definition and types
dignity considerations
embryo rights and
family consent importance
filial piety justification
first PRC case (2001, Zhejiang)
first planned PAR (2004, Guangdong)
first “typical case” (Zou Mouling, 2023)
French approach
frozen embryo cases
German approach
grandparents’ interests
“heart factor”
informed consent issues
intergenerational justice
Israeli approach
Japanese cases
legal theory debates
Li Qingyan case
Neubrandenburg case (Germany, 2010)
parental interests
permissive vs. restrictive approaches
planned vs. unplanned
pro-permissive framework
pro-restrictive framework
regulatory absence in PRC
respect principle (zunzhong 尊重)
San Menxia case (2023)
Sino-Confucian context
social order concerns
spectrum of regulation
Supreme People’s Court endorsement
Sweden prohibition
Taiwan case (Sun Chi-hsiang, 2005)
Tan Huiping case
traditional ethics influence
US approach
Vietnam approach
Wang Liqing’s scholarship
widow’s rights
“wisdom of repugnance” (Kass)
Ya Chunli case
Yang Yonghui case
Yixin case sequel (Tiantian birth)
York v. Jones (1989)
Zou Mouling case (2023)
pregnancy termination see See Abortion
prenatal diagnosis
eugenic screening
genetic disease screening
prohibition for sex determination See also Foetal sex determination
privacy
deceased’s privacy in PAR
principle in bioethics
Roe v. Wade rationale
prohibitive approach (surrogacy)
China (PRC)
destination jurisdictions shift from
European countries
France
Germany
Italy
Macao
Spain
Taiwan
pronatalism
2021–2030 Programme
current Chinese policies
eugenic aspects
family planning shift to
fertility optimization policies
National Women’s Congress (2023)
pre-1980 policies
propaganda
property theory (frozen embryos)
Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests Law (Funü quanyi baozhang fa 妇女权益保障法) PWRIL
1992 enactment
2022 revision
Article 21.3 (informed consent)
Article 32 (reproductive rights)
Article 51 (reproductive rights, former numbering)
Article 62 (premarital examination)
Protestantism
public opinion
Chen Kaige film controversy
family continuity values
judicial decisions influenced by
octuplets incident (2011)
PAR support
surrogacy attitudes
Three Supremes principle
unfair births discourse
Zheng Shuang scandal
public order and morals
Article 8 Civil Code
best interest of child vs.
contracts violating
PAR and
surrogacy and
qQi (气, vital energy)
qie (妾, concubine)
Qiu Qianyi (邱千逸)
Qiu Renzong (邱仁宗)
abortion perspectives
Bioethics (1987)
external value of foetus
first Chinese bioethics textbook
foetal ontological status
personhood definition
reproductive rights theory
Western bioethics integration
Qing dynasty
abortion-in-assault law
eugenic proposals
family planning absence
fornication crime (jian 奸)
Great Qing Code
legal modernization
medical texts
pawning wife practice
quality birth control (yousheng youyu 优生优育)
Rawls, John
receiving jurisdictions (surrogacy)
reciprocal IVF (RIVF)
Beijing Fengtai Court case (2024)
Chinese doctrine on
Huli District case (2020)
as surrogacy type See also Lesbian couples
Regulation on Prohibition of Foetal Sex Identification (2002, 2016)
regulatory approach (surrogacy)
Characteristics
Greece
Israel
New Zealand
Portugal
South Africa
ren (仁, benevolence/humaneness)
repeat abortion
reproductive autonomy
abortion context
constitutional protection debates
deceased persons
divorce disputes over
husband’s consent requirement and
limitations on women’s
PAR context
Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests Law
relational context
single women exclusion
widow’s rights See also Reproductive rights
reproductive rights
Article 17 PFPL
Article 32 PWRIL
autonomous reproduction right
constitutional basis
deceased’s rights
demographic crisis and
dignity and
divorce disputes
family interests and
husband’s reproductive interests
lesbian couples
LGBTQ+ community
marital relationship dependency
PAR context
personal dignity and
Population and Family Planning Law
Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests Law
Qiu Renzong’s theory
relational context
shengyu quan (生育权)
single women exclusion
spousal consent debates
surrogacy access and
widow’s status
reproductive tourism
UK citizens engaging in
California destination
Cambodia
Chinese citizens engaging in
Costs
destination jurisdictions
exploitation concerns
India
inequality and
Laos
receiving jurisdictions
Thailand
United States
Yixin case sequel
repronhubs
respect principle (zunzhong 尊重)
in bioethics
Chinese priority
in HART regulation
in PAR debates
vs. autonomy
vs. dignity
zun (尊) etymology
Rigdon, Susan M
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Dobbs overruling (2022)
embryo legal status and
original decision
PRC criticism of overruling
privacy rationale
Russia
surrogacy ban (2023)
Sacco, Rodolfo (formants theory)
Same-sex couples see See Lesbian couples; LGBTQ+ rights
San ge zhishang (三个至上, Three Supremes)
San Menxia case (2023)
Article 16 CC application
as “compassionate judgment”
embryo rights recognition
facts
foetal rights extension
maintenance compensation claim
pre-foetus concept
socialist judicial philosophy and
Savage, Mark
Schicktanz, Silke
Schopenhauer, Arthur
sex education
sex ratio
gender imbalance
gender-selective abortion
Jiangxi restrictions response
missing women
Nanchang regulations
one-child policy impact
sex-selective abortion see See Foetal sex determination
Shao Lizi (邵力子)
Shao Yumei (邵玉梅) see See Yixin case
Shelley, Mary Frankenstein
Shen Jie (沈杰) see See Yixin case
Shen Xinnan (沈新南) see See Yixin case
Shen Yanru (沈燕如)
Shengming lunlixue (生命伦理学, bioethics)
shengyu quan (生育权, reproductive rights)
shengnü (剩女, left-over women)
sheng (生, give birth)
single-parent families
single women
abortion access
complete family concept and
egg freezing prohibition
French HART access (2021)
HART prohibition
single women (cont.)
Hong Kong HART prohibition
reproductive rights debates
vs. widow status
Sino-Confucian societies
Japan
Korea
PAR attitudes
reproductive values
Taiwan
Vietnam See also Confucianism
Snow, Edgar
socialist judicial philosophy see See Judicial philosophy, socialist
Song Jian (宋健, one-child policy architect)
souls (hun 魂 and po 魄)
South Korea see See Korea (South)
sperm banks
Basic Standards (2003)
commercialization prohibition
establishment (1981)
post-mortem retrieval
regulations
Technical Specifications
Vietnam disposal rule
spousal consent
abortion context
divorce consequences
husband’s reproductive interests
informed consent vs.
Japan requirement
PAR context
Protection of Women’s Rights Law and
Taiwan requirement
stepparent-child relationship
Article 1072(2) Civil Code
Beijing Fengtai case and
Chen Yin case recognition
custody determination and
Huli case failure to apply
legal recognition
same-sex couples and
sterilization
forced practices
HART impact
one-child policy enforcement
reversal through HART
tubal ligation
Uyghur population
Vasectomy
Sun Chi-hsiang (孫啟祥, Taiwan PAR case)
Sun Jitao (孙继涛)
Sun Simiao (孙思邈)
“Absolute Sincerity of a Great Physician” (Dayin jin Cheng 大医精诚)
Buddhist influences
Supreme People’s Court (SPC)
2011 Interpretation (Marriage Law)
China Judgments Online (CJO)
judicial transparency rollback
parent-child relationship guidelines
PAR endorsement
San Menxia case and
typical cases (dianxing anli 典型案例)
Zou Mouling case (2023)
surrogacy
administrative prohibition
agencies and brokers
altruistic
ancient practices analogous to
“Baby Gammy” case
best interests considerations
birth theory application
bloodline theory application
brokerage agreements invalidity
Chen Kaige film controversy
Chen Yin v. Luo Ronggeng case
Commercial
comparative law perspectives
contract law de facto prohibition
contract theory application
contracts deemed void
criminal law gap
custody determination
definitions
destination jurisdictions
Eastern approaches
enforcement challenges
ethical debates
exploitation concerns
face recognition surveillance
feminist debates
Gao Wei case
gestational
government campaigns against
HART regulations prohibition
human rights debates
illegal detention charges related to
international perspectives
Laos ban (2023)
legal scholarship
legislative proposals
lesbian couples and
LGBTQ+ access
market size in China
media coverage of scandals
multi-departmental coordination
octuplets incident (2011)
parent-child relationship determination
patriarchal context
PFPL 2015 draft debate
prohibitive approach
public attitudes toward
receiving jurisdictions
regulatory approach
repronhubs
same-sex couples and
traditional
traditional Chinese practices
transnational
tolerant approach
underground industry
Western approaches
Yixin case implications
Zheng Shuang scandal
Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985 (UK )
surrogate mothers
altruistic vs. commercial arrangements
Biblical references
birth theory and
definition
dignity
emotional attachment debates
exploitation
legal status
maternity denial option
profiles
rights and interests
Roman practices
“renting womb” concept
Shangqiu village
socioeconomic vulnerability
traditional Chinese forms
“womb as tool” critique
yang (阳) vs. yin (阴) characteristics
Sweden (PAR prohibition)
tai (胎, embryo/foetus/placenta)
Taijiao (胎教, education of foetus)
Taiwan (ROC)
abortion consent requirements
Artificial Reproduction Act (2007)
Taiwan (cont.)
eugenic policy
Genetic Health Act
PAR case (Sun Chi-hsiang, 2005)
PAR regulation
Sino-Confucian tradition
surrogacy legalization proposals
surrogacy prohibition
Tan Huiping case (2018, Guangxi)
Tang Code
Tang Min (汤敏)
Technical Specifications for HART (2003) (tshart)
content
prohibited practices
revision history
surrogacy prohibition
Thailand
“Baby Gammy” case (2014)
Protection for Children Born through ART Act (2015)
as former surrogacy destination
surrogacy restrictions (2015)
three-child policy (2021)
three Supremes (san ge zhishang 三个至上)
Tiantian (天天, child born from Yixin case embryos)
birth announcement
Laos surrogacy
PAR case status
public support
as unplanned PAR
tolerant approach (surrogacy)
Australia
characteristics
England and Wales
Hong Kong
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
abortion perspectives
Daoist roots
embryo-placenta integration
foetal development understanding
natural processes respect
tai (胎, embryo/foetus/placenta)
Xi Yuan Lu (洗冤录, Collected Cases of Justice Rectified)
yang (养, nurture) vs. sheng (生, give birth)
traditional surrogacy
contract invalidity
custody determination
definition
dian qi (pawning wife)
distinguished from gestational
parent-child relationship
transnational surrogacy
Chinese citizens engaging in, 213–214
destination countries
European approach
inequality concerns
Laos
Law on Choice of Law application
parent-child relationship issues
United States
Yixin case sequel
Zheng Shuang scandal See also Reproductive tourism
transparency, judicial
two-child policy (2015)
typical cases (dianxing anli 典型案例)
Chen Yin v. Luo Ronggeng as
San Menxia case as
SPC publication
Zou Mouling case as
Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights (2005)
United Kingdom
comparative law influence
Gao Wei case mention
He Yue and Yu Fenglei’s study
Hong Kong legal system influence
Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act (1990, 2008)
PAR approach
Parental Order system
reproductive tourism from
Surrogacy Arrangements Act 1985
tolerant approach to surrogacy
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)
Article 3 (best interest)
Article 7 (right to identity)
Article 35 (trafficking prohibition)
Chinese application
United States
abortion regulation by states
Alabama Wrongful Death Act
Chinese citizens’ surrogacy in
Davis v. Davis (1992)
Dobbs v. Jackson (2022)
embryo legal theories
free market approach to surrogacy
LePage v. Center for Reproductive Medicine (2024)
PAR approaches
PRC criticism
Roe v. Wade (1973)
state-level variations
surrogacy destination
York v. Jones (1989)
Unschuld, Paul
Uyghur population
coerced abortion reports
demographic control
eugenic targeting
Vietnam
Decree 12/2003/ND-CP
PAR regulation
Sino-Confucian tradition
sperm disposal rule
wan xi shao (晚稀少, “late, sparse and few”)
Wang Guisong (王贵松)
Wang Liqing (汪丽青)
embryo rights predictions
PAR scholarship
Wang Nanfu (王男栿), One Child Nation (2019)
Wang Qingjie (王庆节)
wenqing panjue (温情判决, compassionate judgments)
Western Legal Tradition (WLT)
comparative methodology and
foetal status concepts
surrogacy approaches
widow’s rights
complete family concept and
frozen embryo access
PAR context
reproductive autonomy
vs. single women status
Zou Mouling case
“Wisdom of repugnance” (Kass)
women’s rights
abortion and
egg freezing restrictions
exploitation in surrogacy
“glorious mothers” vs. autonomy
National Women’s Congress (2023)
2021–2030 Programme
reproductive autonomy limitations
reproductive rights subordination
surrogacy debates and See also Reproductive rights; Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests Law
Wrongful Death of a Minor Act (Alabama)
Xi Yuan Lu (洗冤录, Collected Cases of Justice Rectified)
Xi Jinping (习近平)
on law and morality
family as social cell
fertility policy statements
14th Five-Year Plan
xiao (孝, filial piety)
abortion context
Confucian concept
PAR context
reproductive obligations
“three cardinal sins” (buxiao you san wu hou weida 不孝有三无后为大)
Xiao Yongping (肖永平)
Xiaomei (defendant in Huli case)
Xue Dinglan (薛定兰)
Xun Zi (荀子)
xueyuan yuanxu (血缘延续, blood continuation)
Ya Chunli case (2019, Yunnan)
yang (养, nurture)
yang (阳, yang characteristic)
Yang Haichao (杨海超)
Yang Lixin (杨立新)
Yang Qianqian (杨茜茜)
Yang Suiquan (杨遂全)
Yang Yonghui case (2016, Zhejiang)
facts
informed consent issues
judgment
Yao Jianlong (姚建龙)
yi (义, righteousness)
yin (阴, yin characteristic)
yingling (婴灵, foetal ghosts)
Yixin case (Shen Xinnan and Shao Yumei v. Liu Jinfa and Hu Xinxian, 2014)
appellate decision
as “compassionate judgment”
custody and disposition rights
embryo legal status
ethical considerations
facts
German Neubrandenburg case comparison
grandparents’ custody claim
heqing heli hefa principle
inheritance claim rejection
public support
sequel (Tiantian’s birth)
“special objects” theory
surrogacy implications
surrogacy in Laos
trial court decision
typical case status debate
York v. Jones (1989, USA )
You Wenting (游文婷)
Youli (有利, beneficence)
Yousheng youyu (优生优育, quality birth control)
Yu Fenglei (俞风雷)
Yu Jiajia (于佳佳)
“yuck factor” (in biotechnology)
Zhang Gao (张杲)
“Medical Compendium” (Yi Shuo 医说)
retribution concepts
Zhang Peiyi (Beijing Fengtai RIVF case)
Zhang Yanling (张燕玲)
Zhang, Irene
Zhao Lijian (赵立坚)
Zheng Shuang (郑爽)
Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission statement
scandal (2021)
surrogacy and abandonment controversy
Weibo public opinion study
Zhidao anli (指导案例, guiding cases)
zhixing tongyi (知性同意, informed consent)
Zhong Kai (钟凯)
Zhou Enlai (周恩来)
Zhu Xiaofeng (朱晓峰)
zisun mantang (子孙满堂, sons and grandsons fill the hall)
Zou Mouling v. a hospital (2023)
as “compassionate judgment”
facts
first typical PAR case
judgment
SPC endorsement
widow’s reproductive rights recognition
Zun (尊, respect/honor)
Zunyan (尊严, dignity)
Zunzhong (尊重, respect principle)
bioethics application
etymology
PAR debates
vs. autonomy (zizhu 自主)
Zygotes
German case law
legal status
Neubrandenburg case
pronuclear stage