Laozi is a pivotal figure in Chinese intellectual and religious history, and both foreign and domestic scholars alike have inquired deeply into both his biography and the history of his religious significance. On the first topic, Ping-ti Ho
Records from the early Eastern Han period often consider Huang-Lao thought and Buddhism to be of the same nature. The most notable examples of this attitude include an imperial edict issued by Emperor Ming of Han
During the early Eastern Han period, Laoziâs position as a religious idol was not yet settled. In the âGujin ren biao,â
[Nowadays, they establish palaces such as] the Jianzhang and the Ganquan, and pavilions for the emperor to invite and dine with transcendents rather than taking care of the harmony between Heaven and the people at the Numinous Terrace or the Mingtang?
å»ºç« ãçæ³ï¼é¤¨å¾¡åä»ï¼å°èéèºãæå ï¼çµ±åå¤©äººï¼ 8
Ban Gu deeply opposed the âWay of Transcendence
We now turn to the matter of Laoziâs mother. During the Tang dynasty, in which there was an atmosphere of respect for Laozi, his mother was identified with the âMysterious Jade Maiden
During the Eastern Han period, there were already accounts of Laozi that identify him with the original pneuma of the primordial chaos that âpredates the birth of Heaven and Earth
The book in two chapters [i.e. the Daodejing] states that Heaven and Earth are able to achieve longevity by not arising from themselves ⦠There are also sayings like, âThe spirit of the valley is undying; it is called the mysterious female.â Those disciples of the Way in the current age grasp the categories and expand them, holding that Laozi both separates and unites with the Qi of the primordial chaos and has the longevity of the three luminaries. He observes Heaven to generate wisdom ⦠He ascends to the big dipper and descends from it. Following the sun, he undergoes nine transformations. He ebbs and flows along with the four seasons. He uses the compass and T-square to regulate the three luminaries, while the four numinosities are near to him. He concentrates on his Cinnabar Fields, and on the Grand Unity of the Purple Chamber.
å ¶äºç¯ä¹æ¸ï¼ç¨±å¤©å°æ以è½é·ä¸ä¹ è ï¼ä»¥ä¸èªçä¹ãâ¦â¦æææµ´ç¥ä¸æ»ï¼æ¯è¬ççä¹è¨ï¼ç±æ¯ä¸ä¹å¥½éè ï¼è§¸é¡èé·ä¹ï¼ä»¥èåé¢åæ¼æ··æ²ä¹æ°£ï¼èä¸å çºçµå§ãè§å¤©ä½èï¼â¡éææï¼é¨æ¥ä¹è®ï¼èææ¶æ¯ãè¦æ¦ä¸å ï¼åéå¨æï¼åæ³ä¸¹ç°ï¼å¤§ä¸ç´«æ¿ã 19
Bian Shao thus clearly demonstrates how Laoziâs followers divinized him. We similarly find in the Xiangâer zhu
[Ban Guâs] ninefold classification [of great people]âhow can he tarnish [Laoziâs] reputation so? [Laozi] is like the Sun and Moon, uniting with the Dipper Star of the Heavens.
ä¹çä¹æï¼ä½è¶³ç´¯ï¼åä½å£ï¼åï¼åå æ¥æï¼åä¹ æ .23
Another relevant text comes from the Sheng Mu Stele
In front of the temple there is the tomb of Mother Li (Laoziâs mother). To its east is a stele. In the first year of [Emperor Huan of Hanâs] Yongxing
æ°¸è era (153 CE), the Qiao county magistrate from Changsha, Wang Fu, erected it. The stele says, âLaozi was born between Qu and Guo. The rivers of Guo go to the east of Qu and pass south through the old city of Xiang county, which is petty and small.â Bian Shaoâs Inscription to Laozi also says, âLaozi is from Xiang County in Chu. Xiang county is empty and desolate. Now it is under the jurisdiction of Ku County, and the old city still exists to the east of the village of Lai.â
å»åæææ¯å¢ãå¢æ±æç¢ï¼æ¯æ°¸èå å¹´è令é·æ²çéæç«ï¼ç¢å ãèåçæ¼æ²æ¿éãæ¿æ°´åæ²æ±ï¼éç¸ç¸£æ ååï¼å ¶ååå°å¯¦ä¸ããéé¶ãèåç¢ãæäºï¼ãèåï¼æ¥ç¸ç¸£äººä¹ï¼ç¸ç¸£èèï¼ä»å±¬è¦ï¼æ åç¶åï¼å¨è³´éä¹æ±ãã 24
Wang Fu was from Changsha and was magistrate of Qiao county. His stele was actually erected in 153 CE, prior to the time of Bian Shao, and it has been long lost.
However, in addition to Li Daoyuanâs quotation, the contents of Wang Fuâs stele are preserved in two other sources:
1) The Taiping yulan
Laozi is the Way. He was born before even formlessness existed. He arose before the Great Beginning. He enacted the origins of the Great Simplicity. Roaming the Six Vacuities, coming and going from the dim obscurity, observing the yet undivided chaos, peering upon the yet unseparated clearness and turbidity.
èåè ï¼éä¹ï¼ä¹çæ¼ç¡å½¢ä¹å ï¼èµ·æ¼å¤ªåä¹åï¼è¡æ¼å¤ªç´ ä¹å ï¼æµ®éå èï¼åºå ¥å¹½å¥ï¼è§æ··åä¹æªå«ï¼çªºæ¸ æ¿ä¹æªåã 25
The content here draws upon the Qianzao du
2) Also in the chapter, âRen shiâ
At the memorial temple for Laoziâs mother, two li to the north of the temple to the great Laozi, there is a stele to the left of the templeâs door which is titled, âStele to Laoziâs Sagely Mother, Li Furen.â [It says:] Laozi is the Wayâs Ruler. He first arose riding on a white deer, entrusting himself to Lady Liâs womb for 72 years. [He was] born in the state of Chu, Huaiyang, Ku County, Lai village, Quren neighborhood. Laoziâs personal name was Er, the Celestial Essence. His sobriquet was Boyang, his pen name Dan.
ææ¯ç¥ ï¼å¨èåç¥ åäºéï¼ç¥ éå·¦æç¢ææ°ãèåèæ¯æ夫人ç¢ããèåè ï¼éåä¹ãå§èµ·ä¹ç½é¹¿ï¼ä¸è¨æ¼ææ°èä¸ä¸åäºå¹´ï¼ç¢æ¼æ¥åæ·®é½è¦ç¸£ç¨éæ²ä»éãèååè³ï¼æç²¾ä¹ï¼å伯é½ï¼èæ°èã 27
We cannot consult the full text of Wang Fuâs stele, as only these three quoted sections remain, but they show that Laoziâs mother was already viewed as a saintly figure during the years of Emperor Huanâs Yongxing era (153â154 CE).28
The Taiping Yulan also quotes the Shenxian zhuan
Laoziâs mother was pregnant with him for 70 years, only then was he born. When the time came, her left flank split open, and he was born. He was born with a white head [of hair]. So, they called him Laozi, âOld Child.â
èåæ¯æ·ä¹ä¸åæ²ä¹çï¼æå²å ¶å·¦è èçï¼çèç½é¦ï¼æ è¬ä¹èåã 29
This is the source of the claim that Laozi was born from the left flank just like the Buddha.30
Laoziâs mother is also known as the âMysterious Jade Maiden.â The Youyang zazu, âYu geâ
The Old Ruler in his 81st year of gestation cut open [his motherâs] left flank and was born with a white head [of hair]. It is also said that Laoziâs mother was the Mistress of the Primal Origin. The Sunâs essence entered her mouth. She swallowed it and became pregnant.
èåå¨èå «åä¸å¹´ï¼åå·¦è èçï¼çèç½é¦ãåï¼ææ¯ï¼æ¬å åä¹ï¼æ¥ç²¾å ¥å£ï¼åèæåã 31
This is how Laoziâs mother came to be known as a saintly figure. Bian Shaoâs Inscription to Laozi also says:
In the 8th year of the Yanxi
å»¶ç¹ era (165 CE), 8th month, jiazi day, his majesty ⦠focused his heart-mind on his Yellow Highness, and, just like Gaozong, he saw Laozi in a dream. He thus honored Laozi with a sacrificial ceremony. At that time, [I,] Bian Shao, was Director of Rites in Chen state ⦠and I dare to proclaim [these events] and make this engraving.
延ç¹å «å¹´ï¼ä¸å äºå¹´ï¼å «æç²åï¼çä¸â¦â¦æ½å¿é»è»ï¼å符é«å®ï¼å¤¢è¦èåï¼å°èç¥ä¹ãäºæé³ç¸éé¶ï¼å ¸åä¹ç¦®â¦â¦æ¢æ¼èéä¹ã 32
There are several different records concerning Emperor Huanâs sacrifice to Laozi. The Hou Han shu
The Hou Han ji
The Zizhi tongjian
In the first month of the 8th year of Yanxi (165 CE): Emperor Huan sent the Central Regular Attendant, Zuo Guan, to Ku county to conduct a sacrifice to Laozi ⦠9th year [of Huanâs reign], 4th month, gengwu day: His Majesty personally performed a sacrificial ceremony in honor of Laozi in the Zhuolong Palace; [he] used patterned felt to decorate the altar, along with gold and jade ornaments, and a buckle for the high platform, and utilized them in performing the Heavenly ceremonies and sacrifices.
ï¼å»¶ç¹ï¼å «å¹´æ¥æ£æãå¸é£ä¸å¸¸ä¾å·¦æºä¹è¦ç¸£ç¥ èåãâ¦â¦ä¹å¹´ï¼å¤åæåºåï¼ä¸è¦ªç¥ èåæ¼æ¿¯é¾å®«ï¼ä»¥æç½½çºå£é£¾ï¼æ·³éé¦å¨ï¼è¨è¯èä¹åï¼ç¨é天æ¨ã 37
The Shuijing, âGuo shui zhuâ
In the 8th month of the 8th year of Yanxi (165 CE), his Majesty sent servants to sacrifice and pay tribute to the Zhuolong temple in a dignified manner. Prime Minister Donglai Wang Zhang (whose sobriquet is Boyi) believed that to follow the will of the sages and spirits, the palace must have stone inscriptions, so he and the adjutant Bian Qiansui established the mysterious stones.
延ç¹å «å¹´ç§å «æï¼çå¸é£ä½¿è å¥ç§ç²è´ç¦®ï¼ç¥ 濯ï¼é¾ï¼ä¹æ¬ï¼è å¦ä¹ãåç¸æ±èççï¼å伯義ï¼ä»¥çºç¥èæèï¼å¿ æé表ï¼ä¹èé·å²éä¹¾é樹ä¹çç³ã 38
Xiang Kai submitted a memorandum to the emperor in the 6th month of the 9th year of the Yanxi era (166 CE) after the sacrifice to Laozi in the Zhuolong Palace
[When his] Way and virtue were already sufficient, he loved playing Chupu,40 and so when Laozi entered the land of the barbarian tribes, he relieved his anguish by playing Chupu.
éå¾·æ¢åï¼å¥½æ¤æ¨è²ã伯é½å ¥æï¼ä»¥æ¯æ¶æ .41
Ma Rong, serving as attendant
The Wei shu
Based on the erection of the steles and the construction of the temple in honor of Laoziâs mother, we can see how Laoziâs birth was perceived to resemble that of the Buddha. Laoziâs mother thus maintained a similarly exalted status to Queen Maya, the Buddhaâs mother. Laozi had already been considered divine before the time of Emperor Huan, and his own mythology eventually formed an amalgamation with that of the Buddha, thus leading him to gradually transform into a religious patriarch on par with the Buddha. We can also infer that the erection of the stele to Laoziâs mother in 153 CE predates Emperor Huanâs 165 CE sacrifice to Laozi by 12 years, which demonstrates that Laoziâs consecration can be identified within a relatively fixed period of time.
The legend of Laozi civilizing the barbarians has always garnered much scholarly attention, largely relying upon the account in the Xuanmiao neijie jing
The Xuanmiao neipian has been quoted in the Dunhuang manuscript, Taiping jing 
, which is a combination of the radicals, qiang 
. Elsewhere, the word âWayâ is written as 
, but this is uncommon. All of this shows that by the time of the completion of the Laozi, the Way was already treated as the primal Qi before the completion of Heaven and Earth.51 The Way is thus a thing completed in chaos, born before the formation of Heaven and Earth. This accords with the view that Laozi is equal to the Way as he was also born from the realm of chaotic mixture that existed prior to Heaven and Earth. This suggests that Laoziâs metaphysical connection to the Way predates even the explanation from the Xiangâer commentary and was not merely fabricated at a later date. Prior to the time of the Eastern Han Emperor Huan, the story of Laoziâs mother giving birth to him from the left flank was already very much in vogue, and after Emperor Huanâs worship and sacrifice, Laoziâs status reached a level similar to Buddhaâs. Wang Fuâs stele52 serves as marker for the period in which Laozi had just become divinized. With the support of the imperial court, Laozi was later officially promoted to divinity. Upon Laoziâs ascension to the throne as a religious leader, religious Daoism was established as a fixed entity.
The book Laozi tong
The edict to King Ying of Chu says, âThe King of Chu recited the subtle teachings of Huang-Lao and promoted Buddhist benevolence and mercy, purifying and cleansing himself for three months
Guo Liying
Han shu, 20.926.
Bian Shao, âLaozi ming,â 3.2a, in Hong Kuo, Li shi, Li xu, 36.
Han shu, 20.862 note 13.
Hou Han shu, 42.1428.
Wenxuan, 1.39.
Hou Han shu, 28B.1001.
Shiji, 63.2139.
See Fang Nanshengâs
Shi Falinâs
Jiang Shengâs
Qiu Xigui et al., eds. Changsha mawangdui hanmu jianbo jicheng, 5:78.
Shandong sheng bowuguan, Cangshan xian wenhuaguan, âShandong Cangshan Yuanjia yuannian huaxiang shi mu,â Kaogu, 1975.2: 127.
See Xing Dongtian, âXuannü de qiyuan, zhineng yu yanbian,â Shijie zongjiao yanjiu, 1997.3: 92â103. As far as I know, the term âmysterious womanâ was first seen in the Han dynasty weft prophecy text, He tu
Baopuzi neipian jiaoshi, 19.337.
Youyang zazu, 16.
Note: The same work is also listed in the âXialanâ chapter of the Baopuzi
Bian Shao, âLaozi ming,â 3.1bâ2a, in Hong Kuo, Li shi, Li xu, 36.
Jao Tsung-i, Laozi Xiangâer zhu jiaozheng, rpt. in Rao Zongyi ershi shiji xueshu wenji, 5:434.
âDa Daojia ling jie,â Zhengyi fawen tianshi jiaojie kejing, rpt. in Zhengtong daozang, 18: 235â38.
Note: Zhang Daoling is the founder of the Way of the Celestial Masters
Bian Shao, âLaozi ming,â 3.3a, in Hong Kuo, Li shi, Li xu, 37.
Shuijing zhushu, 23.1945â46.
Taiping yulan, 1.4a.
Taiping yulan, 1.3b.
Taiping yulan, 361.5bâ6a.
The volume by Yan Kejun
Taiping yulan, 361.7b.
I have previously written an article which includes a discussion of Laozi alongside similar stories of Indra and the Buddha, though the investigation there is not exhaustive. See âZhongguo gudai xiesheng de chuanshuoâ
Youyang zazu, 16.
Bian shao, âLaozi ming,â 3.2aâ2b, in Hong Kuo, Li shi, Li xu, 36.
Hou Han shu, 7.316.
Hou Han ji, 22.611.
Hou Han ji, 22.614.
Hou Han ji, 22.617.
Zizhi tongjian, 55.1777, 1787.
Shuijing zhushu, 23.1975.
Hou Han shu, 30B.1082.
Note: Chupu
Ma Rong, âChupu fu,â Quan Hou Han wen, 18.4b, rpt. in Quan Shanggu Sandai Qin Han Sanguo Liuchao wen, 566.
Wei shu, 114.3048.
Bian shao, âLaozi ming,â 3.3b, in Hong Kuo, Li shi, Li xu, 37.
Shiji, 63.2139.
Shiji, 63.2139.
Liu Yi, âXuanmiao neipian kao,â Dunhuang wenxian lunji, 614â52.
Gu Huan, âYi Xia lun,â Quan Qi wen, 22.1b, rpt. in Quan Shanggu Sandai Qin Han Sanguo Liuchao wen, 2914.
Ming Sengshao, âZheng er jiao lun,â Quan Qi wen, 14.5b, rpt. in Quan Shanggu Sandai Qin Han Sanguo Liuchao wen, 2868.
Note: Hanzhong
As discussed in U Siang"ko-Kore-u
This character is sometimes treated as zhuang
Shi Zhecunâs