The typology of votive figurines is largely based on Colonnaâs classification and my own grouping of the votives not considered by him.1 In this Appendix, for each type I present a description,2 the average measurements, the areas of distribution, and when applicable, I briefly outline the scholarly framework of their interpretation.
1 SixthâFourth Century BCE
1.1 Fabriano Group (FaG; figure A234)3
This type of figurine belongs to north Umbrian production and comprises elongated figures of warriors characterized by course anatomical details of both the body and the face. These figures are depicted wearing a defensive skirt and a tall crest with raised cheekpieces, while some have additional greaves. The eyes are depicted with a circular punch, and the mouth with a small horizontal line.
The height varies from 14 to 25â¯cm. Figurines of this type have been found at Sassoferrato,4 Fabriano,5 and Colfiorito (Sanctuary of Cupra).
1.2 Fossato di Vico Group (FoVG; A3.235)6
This type of figurine belongs to the north Umbrian production and represents warriors. These figures are characterized by skeletal elongation, and wear a cuirass with a thick belt, a helmet with an interrupted curve, and a defensive skirt (pteruges) decorated with X lines and a crisscross pattern.
The height of these figurines varies from 20 to 32â¯cm. Besides two specimens from Fossato di Vico7 and Colfiorito (Sanctuary of Cupra), figurines of this type lack provenance.
1.3 Todi Group (ToG; A3.56)8
This type of figurine belongs to the southern Umbrian production and depicts warriors. The figurines share several characteristics, including the indication of eyelids in the modeling of the face, a softly modeled body, a helmet with raised cheekpieces, and a large crest rising directly from the cap. They also wear a leather cuirass with hinged shoulder guards, a belt, and greaves. Furthermore, the armor and the helmet are intricately decorated with geometrical motifs.
The height varies from 18 to 24â¯cm. Due to the size and sophisticated rendering of the figurines of this group, Colonna defines it as âthe most noticeable episode of the southern Umbrian school.â9 Figurines of this type have been found in the Sabine area at Ancarano10 and in Umbria at Calvi dellâUmbria (Monte San Pancrazio sanctuary) and Todi (Monte Santo).11 The latter is considered by Colonna the most likely place for the manufacture of these figurines.
1.4 Amelia Group (AmG; A3.66â68; A3.106â109; A3.138; A3.146; A3.187â188; A3.229â230)12
This type of figurine belongs to the southern Umbrian production and consists of warriors, striding men, and male and female worshipers. The most unique feature of these figurines is their heads, which are filed at the front to create two flat surfaces that form an acute angle and end on the upper part with a curved edge. The eyes are represented with small circles, and the mouth is indicated with a cut at the base of the angle, which serves as the nose. The naked bodies of the figurines have nipples and navels that are incised with circles, while the men have protruding genitals. The striding men have their right leg slightly bent and their left leg straight, while their left arm is raised with the palm facing upwards and the thumb stretched wide. The right arm is bent downwards with an open hand and a stretched-out thumb. The lower limbs of the figurines end with spikes.
The height of the figurines varies between 5 and 10â¯cm. In Umbria, specimens have been found at Todi (Monte Santo),13 Umbertide (Monte Acuto),14 Spoleto (La Rocca), Assisi (Colle S. Rufino),15 and Colfiorito (Sanctuary of Cupra).16 Outside the region, figurines of this typology come from the Sabine (Ancarano) and Etruscan (Fiesole) areas, and from Rome (Via Magenta).17 A few examples have also been found beyond the Alps, in Switzerland (at Bessonens and Sembracher) and France (at Menthon-Saint-Bernard).18 The abundance of this type at Todi has led Colonna to hypothesize that this was the center of manufacture.
1.5 Foligno Group (FoG; A3.55; A3.91; A3.144â155; A3.196; A3.201â202; A3.233)19
This type of figurine belongs to the southern Umbrian schematic production and consists of warriors and striding men. Both are depicted as naked and striding towards the left, with the warriors being depicted with crests on their heads. The punched roundels are used to represent the eyes, nipples, and navel, while the mouths are depicted with a small slit. The legs of the figurines end with pointed feet.
The height of the figurines of the Foligno group varies between 7 and 10â¯cm. Specimens have been found in Terni (Monte Torre Maggiore),20 Montefranco (Monte Moro),21 Todi (Monte Santo),22 Calvi dellâUmbria (Monte San Pancrazio), Spoleto (La Rocca), Gualdo Tadino (Colle Mori),23 and Foligno (Cancelli and the Sanctuary of Cupra).24 Outside this region, figurines of this type come from the Etruscan area (Fiesole), northern ItalyâAltino (Veneto) and Aquileia (Friuli-Venezia Giulia)âand Spain (Ampurias).25 The abundance of this type at Todi has led Colonna to hypothesize that this was the center of manufacture of the FoG.
1.6 Nocera Umbra Group (NuG; A3.15â16; A3.73â75; A3; 117â119; A3.136â137; A3.159â160; A3.175â176; A3.197; A3.215)26
This type of figurine belongs to southern Umbrian schematic production and includes flat figurines of both warriors and females. The warriors in this group are typically depicted with a lozenge crest and open arms. On the other hand, the female worshipers have open arms, and grooves indicate their hands. They also have different types of tutulus (a type of headdress) on their heads.
The height of the figurines is between 5 and 13â¯cm. In Umbria, specimens have been found at Amelia (Grotta Bella),27 Terni (Monte Torre Maggiore), Todi (Monte Santo),28 Umbertide (Monte Acuto),29 Spoleto (La Rocca),30 Gubbio (Monte Ansciano),31 Foligno (Cancelli and Cupra Sanctuary),32 and Monte Pennino. Outside the ancient region, figurines of the NuG type have been found in Sabine and Etruscan areas (Ancarano, Nocera Umbra, and Orvieto) and in northern Italy at Villazzano (Trentino-Alto Adige) and Altino (Veneto).33
1.7 Esquiline Group (EG; A3.1â10; A3.44â49; A3.60â65; A3.86â88; A3.110â113; A3.131â133; A3.145; A3.151â158; A3.163â167; A3.193â195; A3.205â206)34
This type of figurine, defined by Richardson as a typically Umbrian phenomenon,35 belongs to southern Umbrian schematic production. The group consists of male and female worshipers as well as warriors, all with a flat, narrow body, outstretched arms and legs, and spikes at the end of their legs. The arms have transverse grooves to indicate fingers, while the long and narrow head has eyes marked by two grooves and a cut to indicate the mouth. Male figures are naked with genital protuberance, while females wear a long, tight tunic. Warriors are recognizable by the high crest on their needle-sharp head and a hole in the right arm to insert a weapon. Some figurines in this group are so schematized that they resemble the shape of a star.
The height varies from 2 to 6â¯cm. Specimens of the EG type have been found abundantly in the region of Umbria at Amelia (Grotta Bella and Pantanelli),36 Todi (Monte Santo),37 Umbertide (Monte Acuto),38 Calvi dellâUmbria (Monte San Pancrazio), Gualdo Tadino (Colle Mori),39 and Foligno (Cancelli and Cupra Sanctuary).40 The type is also attested in the Picene (San Severino Marche, Pievetorina, and Pioraco),41 Sabine (Ancarano di Norcia and Forma Cavaliera),42 Etruscan (Bettona, Maggione, and Orvieto),43 Aequian (Carsoli),44 and Roman (Rome, Piazza dellâEsquilino)45 areas. A few examples have been also found beyond the Alps, in northern Italy (at Vertova in the Lombardy region), Austria (Zollfeld), and Hungary (Keszthely and Szombathely).46
1.8 Montesanto Group (MSG; A3.120â121)47
This type of figurine belongs to the southern Umbrian schematic production and includes only figures of warriors. The type is characterized by the repetition of the ToG costume but without greaves. The facial features are geometric, with a sharp nose, eyes represented by carved circles, and a small horizontal gash indicating the mouth.
The height of these figurines ranges between 11 and 14â¯cm. Besides those from Todi (Monte Santo),48 the figurines of this group lack provenance.
1.9 Bronze Sheets (BS; A3.57; A3.173â174; A3.198; A3.213â214)49
Figurines belonging to this type are cut from bronze sheets and characterized by extremely flat and elongated bodies. These almost resemble a long strip where limbs and head are the only anatomical details; when preserved, the genitals hang between the legs of the male types.
The height of these figurines can vary from 3 to 55â¯cm. Given the presence of this type of figurines in several sanctuary contexts of Roman (Campidoglio and Santâ Omobono)50 and Latin (Tivoli, Sermoneta, Satricum, Segni, and Norba)51 areas, Colonna hypothesized that their production began in Rome. In Umbria, the BS type is attested at Calvi dellâUmbria (Monte San Pancrazio), Umbertide (Monte Acuto),52 Foligno (Cancelli),53 and Colfiorito (Sanctuary of Cupra). Outside the region, a few figurines have been found in the Aequian and Sabine areas (Carsoli and Ancarano),54 in Picenum (Montefortino di Arcevia),55 and Etruria (Bagnolo S. Vito).56
1.10 Animals (A3.11â14; A3.58; A3.77â78; A3.92â93; A3.122â123; A3.168; A3.196; A3.121â122)
This type consists of bronze figurines depicting various animals such as pigs, goats, bulls, cows, and horses. The execution of these figurines is similar to that of schematic human figurines as they were cast and then hand-finished on the edges. Most of the time, these figurines are highly stylized, and it can be challenging to identify the exact animal being represented. The bodies are flattened and elongated, and the legs end in pointed feet. When there are anatomical details, they are rendered with punched circles for the eyes and notches or grooves for the mouth and fur.
The height varies from 2 to 6â¯cm. In Umbrian territory, votives of this type have been found at Grotta Bella,57 Todi (Monte Santo),58 Calvi dellâUmbria (Monte San Pancrazio), Monte Torre Maggiore,59 Monte Moro,60 Foligno (Cancelli),61 Umbertide (Monte Acuto),62 and Colfiorito (Sanctuary of Cupra). Outside this region, specimens come from Etruscan (Pasticcetto di Magione, Cortona, and Colle Arsiccio)63 and Sabine (Ancarano)64 areas. Since the level of schematization is close to the schematic rendering of the figurines of the EG type, it is possible that the bronze animal figurines were also a southern production, as suggested by Cenciaioli.65
1.11 Eyed Crests (A3.54; A3.76; A3.89â90; A3.199)
This type comprises small bronze filed crests that are commonly considered a simplified version of the warrior figure.66 These crests stand on spikes and feature two grooves made with a punch to resemble eyes.
The height varies between 2 and 4â¯cm high. This type is widespread in southern Umbria (Monte San Pancrazio, Monte Moro, and Monte Torre Maggiore)67 and limited to one sanctuary in the Apennine area (Sanctuary at Cancelli).68
1.12 Archaic Heads (A3.21â22; A3.53; A3.69; A3.94; A3.124; A3.161; A3.179; A3.187; A3.200)
This type consists of bronze figurines that depict human heads with an extremely geometric execution, making gender distinction difficult.69 The heads are faceted, with details added using a burin or a circular punch, and bear a striking similarity to those of the Esquiline Group and Amelia Group, suggesting that some of the same casts may have produced them. The bottom of the heads features a sharp spike.
The height of the figurines varies from 2.5 to 4â¯cm. This type of figurine is attested throughout the Umbrian territory, including at locations such Amelia (Grotta Bella), Umbertide (Monte Acuto), Calvi dellâUmbria (Monte San Pancrazio), Terni (Monte Torre Maggiore),70 Montefranco (Monte Moro),71 Todi (Monte Santo),72 Gualdo Tadino (Colle Mori), and Foligno (Cancelli).73 Outside Umbria, this type of schematic bronze head has been found in Etruscan territory at Arna and Bettona.74 It is worth noting that more realistic heads with elaborated anatomical features have been discovered at Fonte Veneziana and the Lake of the Idles (Arezzo), as well as in Fiesole.75
1.13 Archaic Anatomicals (A3.17â20; A3.50â52; A3.139; A3.201; A3.226; A3.234)
This type consists of bronze representations of limbs, including legs, feet, hands, and arms. The figurines are depicted schematically, with little attention paid to anatomical details. The arms are portrayed outstretched with hands indicated by small incisions to represent the fingers. The legs are extremely thin, with little distinction between the upper and lower parts, and the feet are similarly rendered with minimal anatomical detail, except for slight swellings on both sides of the ankle to represent the ankle bones. As with the other bronze votive types mentioned earlier, these figures stand on tall spikes.
The height of the specimens of this type varies from 2 to 8â¯cm. In Umbria, they have been found at Amelia (Grotta Bella), Calvi dellâUmbria (Monte San Pancrazio), Terni (Monte Torre Maggiore), Umbertide (Monte Acuto),76 Spoleto (La Rocca), Foligno (Cancelli),77 and Colfiorito (Sanctuary of Cupra). Outside the ancient Umbrian territory, the presence of bronze anatomical votives has been noticed in Venetic sanctuaries at Este, Villa di Villa, Lova, and San Pietro Montagnon, and in Etruscan sanctuaries at Marzabotto, Arezzo (Fonte Veneziana), Monte Falterona (Lake of the Idols), Fiesole, Magione, Arna, and Bettona.78
2 Late FourthâSecond Century BCE
2.1 Hellenistic Worshiper with a Rayed Crown (A3.36; A3.79â80; A3.150; A3.162; A3.188; A3.202)
This type comprises bronze figurines representing male and female worshipers. The male figurine is depicted wearing a knee-length tunic and holding a patera in his right hand and an acerra in his left. He wears a crown with either three or five leaves on his head.79 The female figurine wears a long chiton that reaches her feet, draped under her breasts, and a himation that covers her left shoulder and wraps around her hips. She carries either an acerra or focaccia bread on her left arm and wears a diadem with several rays or a crown/diadem on her head.
Both female and male worshipers originally stood on a small cubic travertine base, which is preserved in one specimen from Grotta Bella (GB_285; figure A36) and from Monte Torre Maggiore (MTM_6; A3.80). Galestin suggests that several workshops may have been active in the region during the third and second centuries BCE due to the slight stylistic differences among the Umbrian Hellenistic figurines. It is also possible that the figurines were manufactured near or at the sanctuary where they were deposited.80
This type is influenced by the Hellenistic style, which began to spread gradually throughout many parts of Italy in the third century BCE. This style was introduced to central Italian areas through the Greek centers of Southern Italy.81 As contacts between the Italians, the Romans, and the Greeks from Greece and Asia Minor increased in the second century BCE, Greek artists began to work in cities such as Rome, Volterra, and Ancona. This led to a greater influence of Hellenistic art in the region. As a result, figurines of Hellenistic worshipers with a rayed crown became widespread in the peninsula as part of the artistic koine of Latium, Etruria, and Umbria in central Italy.82 In Umbria, this type is attested at Amelia (Grotta Bella),83 Terni (Monte Torre Maggiore), Assisi (Monte Subasio),84 Gubbio (Monte Ansciano), Gualdo Tadino (Colle Mori),85 and Foligno (Cancelli).86 Outside this region, figurines of this type have been found in Latin (Nemi),87 Etruscan (Chiusi, Colle Arsiccio, and Caligiana di Magione),88 Picenate (Monte Rinaldo),89 and Aequian (Carsoli) areas.90
2.2 Terracotta Heads (A3.59; A3.84â85; A3.1â2â104; A3.189; A3.143; A3.204) and Anatomical Terracottas (A3.34; A3.43; A3.82â83; A3.95â101; A3.140â142; A3.203; A3.231)
Terracotta heads and anatomical votives belong to the Etrusco-Latial-Campanian group (ECL), which was first classified by Comella in 1981. These votives have been linked to the process of Romanization and the offering of parts of the body often associated with healing cults.91
As early as the end of the sixth century BCE, the practice of dedicating heads as votive offerings was identified in Veii and Falerii.92 Torelli suggests that this custom in Etruria was influenced by similar practices in Magna Graecia associated with the chthonic cults of Demeter and Kore.93 The practice began to spread to other regions, including Caere, Capua, Teano, and Carsioli, during the fifth century BCE. Eventually, the practice reached Rome and central Italy during Romeâs expansion,94 following the âdirettrici della conquista romanaâ and becoming a distinctive feature of Romanization.95 These votive offerings are believed to be forerunners of the terracotta heads that are part of the Etrusco-Latial-Campanian group.
Antomical votives are shaped like parts of the internal or external human body and represent the most conspicuous type in the Etruscan-Latial-Campanian group. Similar to the terracotta heads, since the spread of the anatomical terracotta tradition coincided with the expansion of Rome, its widespread adoption has been linked to the Roman conquest of Italy, in particular through the areas occupied by Latin colonies.96
2.3 Tanagra Figurines (A3.232)
This type consists of figurines of women, typically depicted standing, though sometimes seated. They wear tightly fitted and intricately folded garments and are often shown wearing high conical sun-hats with broad brims and carrying fans. The figurines are represented in an endless variety of poses, with their attire similarly diverse. Given that many specimens are depicted holding offerings, it is likely that these figurines represent worshipers engaged in religious rituals and public festivals, or in specific moments of their lives, such as purification rites before a wedding, puberty, or prenuptial rites.97
This type of figurine originated in Athens in the second half of the fourth century BCE and later became more widespread in the Italic peninsula as part of the Hellenistic cultural exchange. During the third century, this style spread from Magna Graecia, particularly Tarentum, to Samnium, Lucania, Latium, Etruria, and the Marrucine territory.98 In Umbria, their presence is limited to the site of the Sanctuary of Cupra at Colfiorito.
2.4 Other (A3.24â33; A3.39â42; A3.127â130; A3.147â149)
This group consists of votive offerings that cannot be classified within any known figurative type and/or are limited to one or two Umbrian sanctuaries. In the pre-Roman period, figurines belonging to this group include: 1) male and female lead figurines found at Grotta Bella and Pantanelli in Amelia; 2) a zoomorphic pendant, a warrior attached to a situla, and a dancing figurine found at Colle S. Rufino in Assisi; and 3) the zoomorphic figurines found at the Sanctuary of Cupra in Foligno. For the Roman period, the figurines that belong to this group are: 1) a terracotta figurine of a bovine found at the La Rocca Sanctuary; and 2) a figurine depicting Hercules found at the Sanctuary of Cupra in Colfiorito.
Colonna 1970.
The acronyms within parentheses refer to the abbreviation of the votive types used both in Chapter 5 and in Appendix 2. The figure number within parentheses refers to the photo catalog in Appendix 3.
Colonna 1970, 39â40.
Colonna 1970, 39 n. 48.
Colonna 1970, 39 n. 47.
Colonna 1970, 42â48.
Colonna 1970, 43 n. 61.
Colonna 1970, 76â79.
Colonna 1970, 80.
Colonna 1970, 77 n. 176 and 177.
Colonna 1970, 78 n. 180 (Calvi dellâUmbria); Colonna 1970, 78â79, n. 181 (Todi).
Colonna 1970, 90â93.
Falcone Amorelli 1977, tav. 90 i/l.
Cenciaioli 1991, 214, 216, and 226.
Monacchi 1986, tav. 39dâe.
Colonna 1970, 94 n. 253.
Colonna 1970, 93 n. 247 (Ancarano); Colonna 1970, 93 n. 245 (Fiesole); Colonna 1970, 93 n. 244 (Rome).
Tabone 1995â1996, 217.
Colonna 1970, 96â97.
Bonomi Ponzi 1989, 20 fig. 4.
Sisani 2013, 134 n. 32.
Falcone Amorelli 1977, tav. 90 a/h.
Colonna 1970, 99 n. 280.
Manca et al. 2014, 55. n. 31 (Cancelli); Colonna 1970, 96 n. 264 (Sanctuary of Cupra).
Colonna Tabone G.pP. 1995â1996, 217 (Altino and Aquileia); Colonna 1970, 99 n. 281 (Ampurias).
Colonna 1970, 100â103.
Arena 1981â1982, tav. 18; Monacchi 1988, tav. 35c.
Falcone Amorelli 1977, 171 e and g/i.
Cenciaioli 1991, 217â219.
Costamagna et al. 2011, 41 fig. 6.
Malone and Stoddart 1994, 150 nn. 37 and 44â45.
Manca et al. 2014, 56 n. 32 (Cancelli).
Colonna 1970, 101 n. 298 (Orvieto); Colonna 1970, 102, n. 303 (Ancarano); Colonna 1970, 102â103 n. 306 (Nocera Umbra); Tabone 1995â1996, 217â218.
Colonna 1970, 103â105.
Richardson 1983, 162.
Monacchi 1988, tav. 35 a/b.
Falcone Amorelli 1977, 174â175.
Cenciaioli 1991, 215â217 and 219â220.
De Vecchi 2002, 57 n. 54.
Manca et al. 2014, 56 nn. 34â36.
Bittarelli 1987, 588.
Schippa, 1979, 204 and Sisani 2013, 148â149 (Ancarano); Sisani 2013, 128â129 (Forma Cavaliera).
Colonna 1970, 105 n. 320 (Orvieto); Bruschetti 1989 (Magione); Scarpignato 1989 (Bettona).
Colonna 1970, 105 n. 321.
Colonna 1970, 103 n. 307.
Tabone 1995â1996, 218â219.
Colonna 1970, 71â72.
Falconi Amorelli 1977, 167â168.
Colonna 1970, 107â114.
Colonna 1970, 107 n. 326 (Campidoglio); Colonna 1970, 108 n. 329.
Colonna 1970, 107 n. 328 (Sermoneta); Colonna 1970, 107 n. 327 (Tivoli); Perrone 1994 (Norba); Gnade 2007, 112 n. 67 and Colonna 1970, 109 nn. 331â332 (Satricum); Colonna 1970, 109 n. 333.
Cenciaioli 1991, 229 nn. 4.33 and 4.34.
Manca et al. 2014, 57 n. 37.
Colonna 1970, 110 n. 334 (Carsoli); Colonna 1970, 110 nn. 336â337.
Colonna 1970, 111 n. 340.
Tabone 1995â1996, 220, tav. 54 1â4.
Monacchi 1988, 79â81.
Falcone Amorelli 1977, 183.
Bononi Ponzi 1989, 26; 2006, 116.
Sisani 2013, 136.
Manca et al. 2014, 57â58.
Cenciaioli, 1991, 223â224.
Bruschetti 1987â1988, 52â59; 1989, 121â122 (for Pasticcetto di Magione and Cortona); Maggiani 2002, 280 (Colle Arsiccio).
Schippa 1979.
Cenciaioli 1991, 223.
Bonomi Ponzi 2006, 115; Sisani 2013, 136.
Costamagna 1998, 9 and Sisani 2013, 136 (Monte Moro).
Manca et al. 2014, 56 (Cancelli).
In two cases, MtAnsc_10 (figure A161) and CM_1 (figure A187), the archaic heads are made of terracotta.
Bononi Ponzi 1989, 22.
Costamagna 1999, 9; Sisani 2013, 136.
Falcone Amorelli 1977 tav. 94aâf and h.
Manca at al. 2014, 57 fig. 39.
Feruglio 2001, 235 (Arna); Roncalli 1989, 125 (Bettona).
In the Arezzo territory, for the heads from Fonte Veneziana, see Villucchi et al. 2001, 123 (n. 20â21), 127 (nn. 38â39), for those from Lake of the Idles, see Trenti 2013, 121â121. For the heads from Albagino, see Nocentini et al. 2018, 98. For the heads in Fiesole, see Mingazzini 1932, 469 and 471â473.
Cenciaioli 1991, 225.
Manca at al. 2014, 57 fig. 41.
For the Veneto region, see Maioli and Mastrocinque 1992, table 22 (Villa di Villa); Chieco Bianchi 2001, table 54 (Este); Groppo 2011, 98 (Lova); Dämmer 1986, table 17 (San Pietro Montagnon). For the Etruscan area, see Gualandi 1974, 63 and Miari 2001, table 37 (Marzabotto); Villucchi et al. 2001, 125 (Fonte Veneziana); Nocentini et al. 2018, 65 and Fedeli 2007, 52â53 (Lake of the Idles); Orlandini Passigli 1990, 91 (Fiesole); Roncalli 1989, 122â123 (Magione); Feruglio 2001, 235 (Arna); Roncalli 1989, 126 (Bettona). Unlike the abovementioned anatomical votives, at Servirola Sanpaolo and Adria anatomical bronzes representing legs are surmounted by an animal figurine representing a duck, interpreted as a solar symbol, see Gualandi 1974, 40â68 and Turfa 2004, 360. For an overview of all anatomical votives in bronze from the pre-Roman period (including unpublished specimens), see Zapelloni Pavia, forthcoming.
Interpreted by Manfrini and Argno (1987, 67â68, fig. 55) as the god Bacchus because of the presence of the ivy crown.
As Galestin (1987, 168) suggested for Latium and Etruria as well. For all the stylistic variations of the Hellenistic worshiper type, see Galestin 1987, 77â118.
Galestin 1987, 93.
An in-depth study on this type of votive is absent. For the presence of the type in Latin context, see Demma 2019, 275â277. For specific Etruscan contexts, see Haynes 1960, 34â38; Monacchi 1988, 88; Roncalli 1989, 138; Marini et al. 2002, 382; Trombetta and Bruschetti 2002; Bonfante et al. 2015, 179.
Monacchi 1988, 88, tav. 38dâe.
Monacchi 1986, 86â87, tav. 29aâc.
De Vecchis 2002, 57 n. 55.
Lost but published in Picuti 2009, 9.
Haynes 1960.
Maetzke 1957, 500 fig. 22 (Chiusi); Calzoni 1947, 45â47 (Colle Arsiccio).
Giorgi 2020, 150â151.
Cederna 1951, 193â300, fig. 9â10.
In addition to terracotta figurines of worshipers, the ECL group also comprised figurines of animals, buildings, and swaddled infants. The ECL group is discussed by Comella (1981, 758), Fenelli (1975), Turfa (1994), Torelli (1999), de Cazanove (2000), and Lesk 2002. Recently, the presence of anatomical votives in Apennine and Abruzzo regions has led scholars to question the belief that the practice of dedicating ELC-type votives spread solely due to Roman expansion, as argued by Glinister (2006, 23â26). For further discussion about this group of votives, and in particular anatomical votives, see Chapter 2.
Heads of the sixth century BCE have been found in the Campetti deposit at Veii: Comella and Stefani 1986, 19; Comella 1997, 335. At Falerii, votive heads dating from the fifth century BCE are present in the sanctuaries of Celle and Vignale and in votive deposits at the Nifeo Rosa: Comella 1986, Blanck 1990. At Narce, votive heads of the first half of the fifth century BCE have been found in the suburban sanctuary of Monte Li Santi-Rote: De Lucia Brolli and Tabolli 2015.
Torelli (1990, 440) and Comella (1981, 772â775) suggest that the Campetti sanctuary at Veii was associated with the cult of Demeter not only because of some similarities between the Etruscan heads and some southern Italian votives in Greek style associated with this cult but also because it resembles some Sicilian sanctuaries dedicated to cthonic deities.
Comella 1981, 772â775.
Steingraber 1980, 247; Torelli 1981. According to Pensabene (1979, 218), the presence of the veiled heads is a characteristic of votive deposits from Rome and Latin colonies, for the presence of the veil was common during the Romanus ritus for sacrificing with the head covered. On the contrary, the absence of the veil should be connected with the Greek ritual practice, adopted by the Etruscans, of sacrificing with the head not draped. However, veiled female heads of the Etrusco-Latial-Campanian type are present in pre-Roman contexts, such as Pietrabbontante and Montefortino, and cast serious doubts on the âRomannessâ of these artifacts (Glinister 2006, 15).
Cf. Chapter 2, in particular the bibliography in fn. 58.
James and Dillon 2012, 233; Graepler 1994, 283.
On the diffusion of the Tanagra figurines in the Mediterranean, see the latest work on this topic by Jeammet and Aravantinos (2010) with previous bibliography. For Samnium and Lucania, see Scopacasa 2015, 261â262; Battiloro 2018. For this type in the area occupied by the Marrucini, see Strazzulla 2012.