Glossary of Names, Places, and Terms
This alphabetical list provides dates and brief biographies for all individuals mentioned in the text of the present volume, all unnamed interlocutors identified in the notes, and individuals important to understanding the text who are mentioned in my Introduction. Also glossed are groups, places, battles, and key terms.
| Aaron (Ar. HÄrÅ«n) |
(fl. 14th c. BC), a prophet in Islam, Mosesâ brother, whom he appointed over the Israelites. |
| al-Ê¿AbbÄs ibn Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib ibn HÄshim |
(d. ca. 32/653), from the HÄshim clan of Quraysh, paternal uncle of Muḥammad and Ê¿AlÄ« and eponym of the Abbasid dynasty. |
| al-Ê¿AbbÄs ibn MirdÄs al-SulamÄ« |
(d. between 18/639 and 35/656), of the Sulaym tribe, pagan poet and warrior who converted to Islam after Muḥammadâs conquest of Mecca. |
| Abbasids |
caliphal dynasty that came to power in 132/750 after defeating the Umayyads and ended in 656/1258 with the sack of their capital, Baghdad, by the Mongols. |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Ê¿AbbÄs |
(d. 68/686), Ê¿AlÄ«âs cousin, governor, and staunch supporter, who fought in all his battles, a prolific hadith narrator and esteemed scholar. |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn Awfah al-YashkurÄ« |
See Ibn al-KawwÄʾ |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Ḥaá¸ramÄ« |
(d. ca. 38/658), stepbrother of Ṭalḥah ibn Ê¿UbaydallÄh and the agent MuÊ¿Äwiyah sent to recruit in Basra after the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. Ibn al-Ḥaá¸ramÄ« was killed by Ê¿AlÄ«âs agent, JÄriyah ibn QudÄmah al-SaÊ¿dÄ«. (See further: Ḥ 4:34â53.) |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn JaÊ¿far |
(d. after 80/699), from the HÄshim clan of Quraysh, son of JaÊ¿far al-ṬayyÄr, who was killed in the Battle of Muʾtah. Ê¿AbdallÄh was Ê¿AlÄ«âs nephew, son-in-law, and staunch supporter. |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn MÄlik ibn Dajnah |
(or Dujunnah, or Diḥyah, lived during Ê¿AlÄ«âs r. 35â40/656â661), one of Ê¿AlÄ«âs followers who narrated his words. Not much is said about him in the sources, as evidenced also by the confusion about his name. (See further: Ḥ 13:18; B 680.) |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn MasÊ¿Å«d |
(d. ca. 32/653), early Companion of Muḥammad and prolific transmitter of hadith, famed also for his knowledge of the Qurʾan. He opposed Ê¿UthmÄnâs standardization of the holy book. He settled in Kufa, where he taught, and Ê¿AlÄ« reportedly encouraged the Kufans to respect Ibn MasÊ¿Å«dâs teachings. |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn Qays |
see AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ al-AshÊ¿arÄ« |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn á¹¢afwÄn |
(d. 73/692), from the Jumaḥ clan of Quraysh, who fought with Ṭalḥah and Zubayr at the Battle of the Camel against ʿAlī and escaped from the battlefield. Later, he became a follower of Ibn al-Zubayr and was killed with him. (See further: B 652; Ḥ 11:125.) |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn Ê¿Umar |
(d. 73/693), son of the second caliph, ʿUmar, brother-in-law of Muḥammad, and prolific transmitter of hadith. Ibn ʿUmar was among the handful of prominent Companions who refused to pledge allegiance to ʿAlī and sat out his battles. |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn ZamaÊ¿ah ibn al-Aswad ibn Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib |
(d. after 40/661), from the Asad clan of Quraysh, one of Ê¿AlÄ«âs followers, even though Ê¿AlÄ« had slain his father, uncle, and brother at the Battle of Badr. Brother of Muḥammadâs wife Sawdah bint ZamaÊ¿ah, Ê¿AbdallÄh married a daughter of another of Muḥammadâs wives, Umm Salamah, from her previous marriage. (See further: B 678; Ḥ 13:10.) |
| Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Zubayr |
(d. 73/692), son of the prominent Companion al-Zubayr ibn al-Ê¿AwwÄm, who fought with his father against Ê¿AlÄ« in the Battle of the Camel. During Umayyad rule, Ibn al-Zubayr laid claim to the caliphate and exercised control over the ḤijÄz and Iraq for almost a decade before being killed by Umayyad forces. |
| Ê¿Abd al-Ê¿AzÄ«z ibn MarwÄn |
(d. 86/705), son of the Umayyad caliph MarwÄn I and half-brother of the Umayyad caliph Ê¿Abd al-Malik. He served under both as governor of Egypt. |
| Ê¿Abd al-Malik ibn MarwÄn |
(r. 65â86/685â705), Umayyad caliph. |
| Ê¿Abd ManÄf ibn Quá¹£ayy ibn KilÄb |
(fl. 6th c. AD), chieftain of Quraysh, whose son HÄshim was Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs great-grandfather. His other son, Ê¿Abd Shams, was the Umayyadsâ progenitor. |
| Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib ibn HÄshim |
(d. ca. 579â¯AD), patriarch of the HÄshim clan of Quraysh, Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs paternal grandfather. Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib raised Muḥammad in the first eight years of his life, after the death of his parents. |
| Ê¿Abd al-RaḥmÄn ibn Ê¿AttÄb ibn AsÄ«d |
(d. 36/656), from the Umayyad clan, killed fighting against Ê¿AlÄ« during the Battle of the Camel. (See further: B 651; Ḥ 11:123â124.) |
| Ê¿Abd al-RaḥmÄn ibn Ê¿Awf |
(d. ca. 31/652), early Muslim convert from the Zuhrah clan of Quraysh, key supporter of AbÅ« Bakrâs nomination to the caliphate and presiding member of the ShÅ«rÄ Council that elected Ê¿UthmÄn. |
| Ê¿Abd al-RaḥmÄn ibn á¹¢afwÄn |
(d. after 36/656), from the Jumaḥ clan of Quraysh, fought against ʿAlī at the Battle of the Camel. |
| Ê¿Abd Shams ibn Ê¿Abd ManÄf ibn Quá¹£ayy |
(fl. 6th c. AD), chieftain of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, father of Umayyah, and great-grandfather of MuÊ¿Äwiyah. Ê¿Abd Shams and HÄshim were twins whose foreheads were reportedly separated by a sword strike, taken as an omen for enmity among their descendants. |
| ʿAbduh, Muḥammad |
(d. 1905), Grand Mufti of Egypt and Shaykh al-Azhar, author of a brief word-list commentary on Nahj al-BalÄghah, with an important introduction. |
| Abel (Ar. HÄbÄ«l) |
see Cain and Abel |
| Abraham (Ar. IbrÄhÄ«m) |
a prophet in Islam, originator of the Kaʿbah rites. Abraham is the progenitor of the Arabs and the Jews through his sons Ishmael and Isaac respectively. |
| Abū al-Aʿwar al-Sulamī |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), son of Ê¿Amr ibn SufyÄn ibn Ê¿Abd Shams, commander who led MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs vanguard in the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n and served as Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£âs aide when he took Egypt for MuÊ¿Äwiyah. AbÅ« al-AÊ¿warâs mother was Christian, while his father had fought against Muḥammad at Uḥud. During the early Muslim conquests, AbÅ« al-AÊ¿war served under various Umayyad commanders in Syria and later remained attached to them. |
| AbÅ« AyyÅ«b al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. ca. 52/672), Companion of Muḥammad and supporter of Ê¿AlÄ« who participated in his battles. AbÅ« AyyÅ«b had taken part in the Muslim conquest of Egypt and later participated in the Umayyad expedition against Constantinople, where he died and is buried. (See further: Ḥ 10:111â112; B 591â592.) |
| AbÅ« Bakr ibn AbÄ« QuḥÄfah |
(r. 11â13/632â634), of the Taym clan of Quraysh, prominent Companion of Muḥammad and first of the four Sunni caliphs. He was the father of Muḥammadâs wife Ê¿Äʾishah. |
| AbÅ« Dharr al-GhifÄrÄ« |
(d. 32/652), Muḥammadâs Companion, Ê¿AlÄ«âs strong supporter, and pious preacher, exiled by Ê¿UthmÄn to Rabadhah for his support of Ê¿AlÄ« and his criticism of Umayyad impiety. (See further: Ḥ 8:252â262; B 473â474.) |
| Abū Dhuʾayb al-Hudhalī |
(d. ca. 28/649), famous pre-Islamic poet of the Hudhayl tribe, who probably embraced Islam together with his tribe in 9/630. |
| AbÅ« Hurayrah al-DawsÄ« al-YamÄnÄ« |
(d. 59/679), Companion of Muḥammad and prolific transmitter of hadith. Although there are some contrary reports, it appears that AbÅ« Hurayrah leaned to the Umayyads. He is said to have been with Ê¿UthmÄn when he was killed, held back from pledging allegiance to Ê¿AlÄ«, and later supported MuÊ¿Äwiyah. |
| AbÅ« Jahl Ê¿Amr ibn HishÄm |
(d. 2/624), from the Makhzūm clan of Quraysh, fierce enemy of Muḥammad, polemically called Abū Jahl: Father of Ignorance. Abū Jahl was killed fighting against Muḥammad at the Battle of Badr. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| AbÅ« Juḥayfah Wahb ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh al-SuwÄʾī |
(d. 74/694), from the Ê¿Ämir ibn á¹¢aÊ¿á¹£aÊ¿ah clan of the SuwÄʾ tribe, who settled in Kufa. AbÅ« Juḥayfah served as chief of Ê¿AlÄ«âs police force and would stand at the foot of the pulpit when Ê¿AlÄ« orated. He narrated hadith from the Prophet and from Ê¿AlÄ«. |
| Abū Jundub al-Hudhalī |
(fl. 6th c. AD), son of Murrah ibn ʿAmr from the Hudhayl tribe, pre-Islamic poet known as al-Mashʾūm (the Inauspicious One). |
| AbÅ« Lahab Ê¿Abd al-Ê¿UzzÄ ibn Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib |
(d. 2/624), Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs paternal uncle and fierce enemy, assigned by the Qurʾan with his wife to hellfire (Qurʾan, Masad 111:1â5). |
| AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ al-AshÊ¿arÄ«, Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn Qays |
(d. ca. 48/668), ostensibly one of Ê¿AlÄ«âs supporters but one who caused him great harm. AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ was an early convert to Islam who took part in the conquest of Iraq, served as governor of Basra under Ê¿Umar and Ê¿UthmÄn and as the locally appointed governor of Kufa at the chaotic end of Ê¿UthmÄnâs reign. When Ê¿AlÄ« instructed him to rally the Kufans in the lead-up to the Battle of the Camel, AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ refused and Ê¿AlÄ« dismissed him. He was later imposed on Ê¿AlÄ« as his representative in the post-á¹¢iffÄ«n arbitration, where he ruled against his master. |
| AbÅ« Muslim al-KhawlÄnÄ« |
(d. ca. 62/682), Yemeni convert to Islam of ascetic bent, who settled in Syria, an associate of MuÊ¿Äwiyah, sent as emissary to Ê¿AlÄ« in the lead-up to the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. |
| AbÅ« SufyÄn ibn al-Ḥarb |
(d. 32/653), of the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs father, and leader of the Meccan opposition against Muḥammad. AbÅ« SufyÄn converted to Islam when the Muslims conquered Mecca and later participated in the Syrian conquests. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| AbÅ« ṬÄlib ibn Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib ibn HÄshim |
(d. 620â¯AD), patriarch of the HÄshim clan of Quraysh, Ê¿AlÄ«âs father, and Muḥammadâs paternal uncle and foster-father, who offered him the clanâs protection. |
| AbÅ« TharwÄn |
(d. after 37/657), Ê¿AlÄ«âs scribe in Kufa. Not much else is known about him. |
| AbÅ« Ê¿Ubayd al-QÄsim ibn SallÄm al-HarawÄ« |
(d. 224/838), prolific philologist from Khurasan who authored works on lexicography, jurisprudence, Qurʾanic sciences, and hadith. His book titled GharÄ«b al-ḥadÄ«th (Rare words in the hadith) became an instant classic. Cited by RadÄ« in Nahj al-BalÄghah. |
| AbÅ« UmÄmah al-BÄhilÄ« |
(d. 86/705), early convert to Islam and transmitter of hadith. AbÅ« UmÄmah served as intermediary between Ê¿AlÄ« and MuÊ¿Äwiyah during and after the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n, but the reports are contradictory about where his loyalties lay. |
| Adam (Ar. Ädam) |
a prophet in Islam and the first human. |
| ʿAfīf ibn Qays |
(d. after 38/658), from the tribe of Kindah, remonstrated with ʿAlī about marching to Syria, brother of the notorious al-Ashʿath ibn Qays. (See further: R 1:315; B 308.) |
| Age of Ignorance (Ar. JÄhiliyyah) |
the pre-Islamic period in which inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula worshipped idols. Ignorance here is specifically meant as ignorance of the one true God. |
| Ahl al-bayt |
(lit. âpeople of the houseâ), Muḥammadâs family, according to the ShiÊ¿a, his daughter FÄá¹imah, her husband Ê¿AlÄ«, and their descendants. |
| Ê¿ahd |
covenant, testament, or document of appointment. |
| ahl al-dhimmah |
see protected peoples |
| Aḥmad ibn Qutaybah al-HamdÄnÄ« |
(fl. late 2nd/8th c.), mentioned as narrator of oration §â¯1.231, likely from the generation after JaÊ¿far al-á¹¢Ädiq (d. 148/765) or the next one, among the leaders and narrators of the ShiÊ¿a. (See further: Ḥ 13:18; B 680.) |
| al-Aḥnaf ibn Qays |
(d. 72/691), chieftain of the TamÄ«m tribe and resident of Basra, who had a reputation for sagacity and was instrumental in persuading his tribe to accept Islam. Aḥnaf sat out the Battle of the Camel but fought on Ê¿AlÄ«âs side at á¹¢iffÄ«n. He later allied with the Umayyads to fight against the Kharijites and ShiÊ¿ites. (See further: B 470; Gh 2:253.) |
| Ahwaz (Ar. AhwÄz) |
city in the Khuzistan province of southwestern Iran on the Dujayl River, conquered by the Muslims in 17/638. |
| AḥzÄb |
see Confederates |
| Ê¿Äʾishah bint AbÄ« Bakr |
(d. 58/678), daughter of the first caliph, AbÅ« Bakr, and one of Muḥammadâs wives. She, with Ṭalḥah and Zubayr, led an army against Ê¿AlÄ« at the Battle of the Camel. |
| Ê¿AlÄʾ ibn ZiyÄd al-ḤÄrithÄ« |
(n.d.), who features in oration §â¯1.207, is an otherwise unknown individual not mentioned in the sources. Ibn AbÄ« al-ḤadÄ«d (Ḥ 11:37) states that the man was actually named al-RabÄ«Ê¿ ibn ZiyÄd al-ḤÄrithÄ« and that the name Ê¿AlÄʾ is an error in Raá¸Ä«âs transcription. |
| Ê¿AlÄ« ibn AbÄ« ṬÄlib |
(r. 35â40/656â661), Muḥammadâs cousin and ward, who married his daughter FÄá¹imah. Ê¿AlÄ« is the first ShiÊ¿i Imam and the fourth Sunni caliph. (See details of Ê¿AlÄ«âs biography in Introduction.) |
| Ê¿AlÄ« ibn al-Ḥusayn al-SajjÄd Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n |
(d. 95/713), ShiÊ¿i Imam following his father, martyr of Karbala, al-Ḥusayn ibn Ê¿AlÄ«. Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n was present with Ḥusayn at the Battle of Karbala but fell ill and did not take part in the fighting. He later composed a set of supplications, famously known as al-á¹¢aḥīfah al-SajjÄdiyyah. |
| ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Zanjī |
(d. 270/883), Chief of the Zanj, who led a fifteen-year rebellion of East African slaves, from 255/869 to 270/883, against the Abbasids, which ravaged southern Iraq. |
| Allies (Ar. Aná¹£Är, sing. Aná¹£ÄrÄ«) |
also translated as Helpers, the people of Medina from the tribes of Aws and Khazraj who supported Muḥammad when he migrated there from Mecca. |
| Amalekites (Ar. Ê¿amÄlÄ«q, sing. Ê¿imlÄq) |
ancient pre-Islamic people, reportedly among the first speakers of Arabic and residents of Mecca. (See further: Ḥ 10:93â94; B 588; R 2:190; F 304.) |
| Amīr al-Muʾminīn |
see Commander of the Faithful |
| Ê¿AmmÄr ibn YÄsir |
(d. 37/657), eminent Companion of the Prophet and staunch supporter of Ê¿AlÄ« who was killed in the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. Muḥammad had prophesied that Ê¿AmmÄr would be killed by the âtreacherous party,â and the ShiÊ¿a see his death at á¹¢iffÄ«n as proof of MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs iniquity. (See further: Ḥ 10:102â107; B 590.) |
| Ê¿Amr ibn Ê¿Abd Wadd |
(d. 5/626), of the Ê¿Ämir ibn Luʾayy tribe, famous pagan warrior whom Ê¿AlÄ« slew in single combat at the Battle of the Confederates. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| Ê¿Amr ibn AbÄ« SufyÄn |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs brother, from the Umayyad clan of Quraysh, taken captive at the Battle of Badr by Ê¿AlÄ«. |
| Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£ |
(d. 43/664), MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs chief advisor at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n, proverbial for his cunning. Earlier commander of the Muslim armies that conquered Egypt during the reign of Ê¿Umar, Ê¿Amr was dismissed by Ê¿Umar for corruption, but was later governor there for the Umayyads. Before he accepted Islam, Ê¿Amr had been one of Muḥammadâs fiercest enemies. (See further: Ḥ 6:281â326.) |
| Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ḥamiq al-KhuzÄÊ¿Ä« |
(d. ca. 50/670), Companion of Muḥammad and a supporter of Ê¿AlÄ«. He commanded a battalion in Ê¿AlÄ«âs army at the battles of the Camel and á¹¢iffÄ«n. |
| Ê¿Amr ibn Salamah al-HamdÄnÄ« al-ArḥabÄ« |
(d. 85/704), resident of Kufa, poet, and a leader of the HamdÄn tribe who participated in the Muslim conquest of Persia. Ê¿Amr was Ê¿AlÄ«âs staunch follower, who fought in all his battles and served as his governor in Isfahan. He was also a follower of Ê¿AlÄ«âs son Ḥasan. |
| amá¹£Är (sing. miá¹£r) |
garrison cities in the early Islamic period. In Ê¿AlÄ«âs time, the major garrison cities were Kufa and Basra in Iraq, and Fusá¹Äá¹ in Egypt. Initially set up to serve the early conquests, by his time they had become permanent and important settled towns in the region. Other towns in Iran and Central Asia are also identified in Ê¿AlÄ«âs time as housing permanent garrisons, and as such may be included under this appellation. |
| Anas ibn MÄlik al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. 93/712), resident of Medina, Muḥammadâs servant from the age of ten, and prolific narrator of hadith, although ShiÊ¿a sources accuse him of widespread forgery. Anas was among the handful of prominent Companions who refused to pledge allegiance to Ê¿AlÄ« and sat out his battles, and who also refused when Ê¿AlÄ« entreated all those who had heard Muḥammadâs words about him at GhadÄ«r Khumm to testify to what they had heard. |
| Anbar (Ar. AnbÄr) |
pre-Sasanian town on the Euphrates, in western Iraq, conquered by the Muslims in 12/634, whose ruins are situated 5 kilometers northwest of present-day Falluja. Lying on a cultivable plain near the first navigable canal between the two great rivers, Anbar controlled an important crossing in early Islamic times. It was also strategically important as the head of the irrigation system of arable lands in Iraq. |
| Antichrist |
see DajjÄl |
| Ê¿AqÄ«l ibn AbÄ« ṬÄlib |
(d. ca. 50/670), Ê¿AlÄ«âs brother, who was vocal in his support for him but for a brief period accepted funds from MuÊ¿Äwiyah. He later rejected MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs sponsorship and returned to Medina. (See further: Ḥ 11:250â254.) |
| Arabian Peninsula (Ar. Jazīrat al-ʿArab) |
Arabia to the ancients, land mass that projects southwards from the main body of the Middle East, surrounded on three sides by sea. Important to Muslims as the birthplace of Islam and its Prophet Muḥammad and site of the Holy Mosques of Mecca and Medina, Arabia was the seat of the Muslim empire for a brief two decades after Muḥammad. |
| arbitration (Ar. taḥkīm) |
post-á¹¢iffÄ«n adjudication at DÅ«mat al-Jandal in Ramaá¸Än 37/February 658, with AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ al-AshÊ¿arÄ« and Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£ representing Ê¿AlÄ« and MuÊ¿Äwiyah respectively. The arbitration ended with AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ ruling against his master, Ê¿AlÄ«, and Ê¿Amr ruling for his master, MuÊ¿Äwiyah. Ê¿AlÄ« rejected the outcome of the arbitration, declaring it contrary to the Qurʾan. |
| Ardashīr-khurrah |
city in the Fars province of Iran, near Shiraz, surrounded by fertile countryside, built by the Persian emperor ArdashÄ«r (r. 226â240â¯AD) at the site of the ancient Achaemenid city of GÅ«r. Conquered by the Muslims in the early 1st/7th century, ArdashÄ«r-khurrah was renamed Firuzabad in the 4th/10th century. The site of the ancient city is located three kilometers east of the new city also named Firuzabad. |
| Ê¿Araj |
caravan stop near ṬÄʾif, between Mecca and Medina (See further: Ḥ 13:303.) |
| Asad |
tribe in northern Arabia, whose people led a mainly nomadic life in pre-Islamic times. In the Muslim wars of conquest, the Asad served in Iraq and Persia. Most settled in Kufa, where they evolved from warriors to men of learning, including many who handed down the Shiʿa tradition. Smaller groups were incorporated into the Syrian army and settled near Aleppo. |
| AÊ¿shÄ MaymÅ«n |
(d. ca. 7/629), pre-Islamic poet, one of the composers of the famous set of long poems known as the Hanging Odes. |
| al-Aá¹£bagh ibn NubÄtah |
(d. early 2nd/7th c.), a close companion of Ê¿AlÄ« and a prolific transmitter of his words, including the famous testament to MÄlik al-Ashtar. An account of the killing of Ḥusayn at Karbala is also attributed to him. He belonged to the tribe of TamÄ«m, was a resident of Kufa, and fought alongside Ê¿AlÄ« at á¹¢iffÄ«n. |
| al-Ashʿath ibn Qays |
(d. 40/661), Kufan noble of the Kindah tribe who revolted at Muḥammadâs death. He later repented and fought for the Muslims at the Battle of YarmÅ«k, and he served as governor of Azerbaijan during Ê¿AlÄ«âs reign. Despite fighting on Ê¿AlÄ«âs side at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n, AshÊ¿ath was instrumental in forcing Ê¿AlÄ« to accept arbitration and to appoint AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ as arbiter. |
| Ê¿Äá¹£im ibn ZiyÄd al-ḤÄrithÄ« |
(d. after 36/656), Basran ascetic, brother of Ê¿AlÄ«âs supporter Ê¿AlÄʾ or RabÄ«Ê¿. |
| Ashras ibn ḤassÄn al-BakrÄ« al-BalawÄ« |
see ḤassÄn ibn ḤassÄn al-BakrÄ« al-BalawÄ« |
| Ashtar |
see MÄlik ibn al-ḤÄrith al-Ashtar |
| Associates of the Camel (Ar. aṣḥÄb al-jamal) |
see Camel |
| al-Aswad ibn Quá¹bah |
(or al-Aswad ibn Quá¹nah, or al-Aswad ibn Zayd ibn Quá¹bah; fl. 1st/6th c.), commander of the ḤulwÄn garrison during Ê¿AlÄ«âs caliphate, named in §â¯2.59 (see note there re the confusion about his genealogy). |
| Ê¿Ayn al-Tamr |
lit. wellspring of dates, so called because of its abundant palms, a small town in Iraq west of the Euphrates, on the frontier between Syria and Iraq. In early Islamic times, Ê¿Ayn al-Tamr commanded the military approaches from the western desert to Kufa; it was attacked by MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs commander al-NuÊ¿mÄn ibn BashÄ«r al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« in 39/659. Today the town is called ShithÄthah and lies 128 kilometers west of Karbala. |
| Azerbaijan (Ar. ÄdharbÄyjÄn or AdhrabÄ«jÄn) |
Sasanian town in northwest Iran conquered by the Muslims in 22/643 under the command of Ḥudhayfah ibn al-YamÄn, an early Companion of Muḥammad and close associate of Ê¿AlÄ«. Al-AshÊ¿ath ibn Qays was governor of Azerbaijan during the caliphates of Ê¿UthmÄn and Ê¿AlÄ«. |
| Badr |
site of the first pitched battle between the Muslims and the Meccans, in 2/624, the year after Muḥammadâs migration to Medina. Badr is located 160 kilometers southwest of Medina and 50 kilometers inland from the Red Sea. |
| Bahrain (Ar. Baḥrayn) |
archipelago in the Persian/Arabian Gulf consisting of 33 islands offshore from present-day eastern Saudi Arabia, site of the ancient town of Tylos. Emperor Ardashīr conquered it in the first half of the third century AD, and Sasanian control lasted until ca. 6/628, when the population voluntarily converted to Islam. Also used in the sources to describe the eastern seaboard of the Arabian Peninsula. |
| BaḥrÄnÄ«, Maytham |
(d. 679/1280), early Twelver ShiÊ¿i commentator of Nahj al-BalÄghah, philosopher and theologian active in Bahrain, famous for his commentaries on the works of Avicenna. |
| Baghdad (Ar. BaghdÄd) |
capital of the Abbasid caliphate from its founding in 145/762 until the fall of the dynasty in 656/1258, with a small interregnum when the capital was in adjacent SÄmarrÄʾ. Located at the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Baghdad was a major hub for political and intellectual activity. Raá¸Ä«, compiler of the present volume, lived his entire life in this city. |
| Basra (Ar. Baá¹£rah) |
garrison city founded in 17/638, during the Islamic conquests of southern Iraq, located near the Shaá¹á¹ al-Ê¿Arab, the river formed by the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates. The Battle of the Camel was fought just outside Basra early in Ê¿AlÄ«âs caliphate. |
| Baá¹á¸¥Äʾ (The Flatland) |
see Mecca |
| Battle of Badr |
see Badr |
| Battle of the Camel |
see Camel |
| Battle of the Confederates |
see Confederates |
| Battle of Ḥunayn |
see Ḥunayn |
| Battle of Khaybar |
see Khaybar |
| Battle of Muʾtah |
see Muʾtah |
| Battle of NahÄwand |
see NahÄwand |
| Battle of NahrawÄn |
see NahrawÄn |
| Battle of QÄdisiyyah |
see QÄdisiyyah |
| Battle of Ṣiffīn |
see Ṣiffīn |
| Battle of Uḥud |
see Uḥud |
| Bayhaqī |
see Ibn Funduq al-Bayhaqī |
| Bedouins (Ar. aÊ¿rÄb) |
pastoral nomads or semi-nomads of the Arabian Peninsula. |
| Book |
see Qurʾan |
| Bishr ibn AbÄ« KhÄzim al-AsadÄ« |
(d. after 575â¯AD), pre-Islamic poet of the Asad ibn Khuzaymah tribe, predecessor of the Umayyad poet Farazdaq. Bishrâs poems were collected by the anthologists Aá¹£maÊ¿Ä« and Ibn al-SikkÄ«t, and the philologist AbÅ« Ê¿Ubaydah wrote a commentary. |
| Bishr ibn MarwÄn |
(d. 74/693), son of the Umayyad caliph MarwÄn I and half-brother of the Umayyad caliph Ê¿Abd al-Malik, under whom he served as governor of Iraq. |
| Burak ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh al-TamÄ«mÄ« |
(d. 40/661), sometimes called ḤajjÄj, from the á¹¢uraym clan of TamÄ«m, first to utter the Kharijite slogan, â¨No rule save Godâs!â© (lÄ á¸¥ukma illÄ li-llÄh). Burak was one of three Kharijites who conspired to assassinate Ê¿AlÄ«, MuÊ¿Äwiyah, and Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£ in the same night. He undertook to kill MuÊ¿Äwiyah but was captured and executed. |
| Burj ibn Musʾhir al-ṬÄʾī |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), identified by Raá¸Ä« as a Kharijite who called out in Ê¿AlÄ«âs hearing their slogan, â¨No rule save Godâs!â© (§â¯1.182). The commentators identify him with the drunkard pagan poet b. 595â¯AD who migrated to Syria and converted to Christianity (See further: Ḥ 10:130; B 597). |
| Busr ibn AbÄ« Ará¹Ät |
(d. 70/689), of the Ê¿Ämir ibn Luʾayy tribe, one of MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs particularly brutal commanders, who fought with him at á¹¢iffÄ«n. Earlier, Busr took part in the Muslim conquest of Syria and probably of Egypt under Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£. MuÊ¿Äwiyah sent Busr in 37/658 to attack Medina, Mecca, and Yemen, where he killed or forced out Ê¿AlÄ«âs commanders and terrorized the locals. (See further: Ḥ 1:340.) |
| Byzantium (Ar. RÅ«m) |
refers to the eastern half of the Roman empire, with its capital in Constantinople, which survived for a thousand years after the western Roman empire crumbled. Constantinople was conquered in 1453â¯AD by the Ottoman Turks, who named it Istanbul. |
| Cain and Abel (Ar. QÄbÄ«l and HÄbÄ«l) |
two sons of the Prophet Adam. |
| Camel (Ar. Jamal) |
name of a battle fought outside Basra in JumÄdÄ II 36/ NovemberâDecember 656 between the Caliph Ê¿AlÄ« on one side, and Muḥammadâs widow Ê¿Äʾishah bint AbÄ« Bakr and two Quraysh Emigrants, Ṭalḥah ibn Ê¿UbaydallÄh and al-Zubayr ibn al-Ê¿AwwÄm, on the other. The battle is named for the camel that Ê¿Äʾishah rode onto the battlefield and is a metaphor for the rider herself. The rebel leaders and their Basran supporters are referred to in the sources as âassociates of the Camelâ (aṣḥÄb al-Jamal). |
| colocynth (Ar. ḥanáºal) |
bitter desert plant used for medicinal purposes. Swallowing or peeling colocynth was a metaphor in early Arabic for bitter grief. |
| Commander of the Faithful (Ar. Amīr al-Muʾminīn) |
caliphal title in Islam, according to the Shiʿa associated primarily with ʿAlī. The title was also used by the caliph-imams of the Fatimid dynasty. |
| Companions of the Prophet (Ar. aṣḥÄb and á¹£aḥÄbah, sing. m. á¹£aḥÄbÄ«, f. á¹£aḥÄbiyyah) |
individuals who had sustained personal contact with Muḥammad and are revered for their sincere service to Islam in its nascent stage. Key figures in the early history of Islam, Muḥammadâs Companions are also the first transmitters of his statements and deeds. |
| Confederates (Ar. AḥzÄb) |
name of a battle in 5/627 fought by the Meccan Quraysh, joined by several other tribes, to form a force of 10,000 men with 600 cavalry against the Muslims. Muḥammad foiled their attempt to storm Medina by digging a protective trench, and the battle is also known as the Battle of the Trench (al-Khandaq). Unable to enter, the confederates besieged Medina, but their confederacy broke up after a fortnight, and the siege was abandoned. Its failure strengthened Muḥammadâs position. Ê¿AlÄ« played a major role by slaying the enemy champion Ê¿Amr ibn Ê¿Abd Wadd in single combat. |
| covenant, people with |
see protected peoples |
| al-á¸aḥḥÄk ibn Qays al-FihrÄ« |
(d. 64/684), MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs commander, active at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n and in its aftermath. (See further: Ḥ 2:113â117; B 225). |
| DajjÄl |
the Antichrist. According to Islamic tradition, he is an evil man who will appear at the end of time, signaling the approach of judgment day. |
| Damascus (Ar. Dimashq, Dimashq al-ShÄm, or ShÄm) |
largest city in Syria, earlier under Byzantine rule, conquered by the Muslims in 14/635. MuÊ¿Äwiyah was governor of Damascus during the reigns of Ê¿Umar and Ê¿UthmÄn, and after Ê¿UthmÄnâs death he fought Ê¿AlÄ«. After Ê¿AlÄ«âs death in 40/661, MuÊ¿Äwiyah became caliph and Damascus remained the Umayyad seat of government of the Muslim empire until the Abbasids defeated them in 132/750 and set up their capital in Baghdad. |
| DÄrÄ« |
attributive of DÄrÄ«n, an island near Qaá¹Ä«f, on the east coast of present-day Saudi Arabia. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, DÄrÄ«n was the main port of Bahrain, through which musk was imported from India, which is why DÄrÄ« musk is famous. (See further: B 549; Ḥ 9:268.) |
| David (Ar. DÄʾūd) |
(fl. 10th c. BC), the biblical King David, a prophet in the Islamic tradition, mentioned in the Qurʾan as someone granted prophecy, kingship, wisdom, and justice, as well as being the recipient of the Psalms. Muḥammadâs hadith and Ê¿AlÄ«âs orations emphasize Davidâs fervent prayer and fasting. |
| DhakwÄn |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), an individual who is said to have memorized and narrated Ê¿AlÄ«âs words to AbÅ« Dharr al-GhifÄrÄ« (§â¯1.128). There is some confusion about his identity: Ibn AbÄ« al-ḤadÄ«d identifies him as a freedman of Ê¿AlÄ«âs sister Umm HÄnÄ« bint AbÄ« ṬÄlib (Ḥ 8:253). More often, the sources name Umm HÄnÄ«âs freedman as BÄdhÄm (full name: AbÅ« á¹¢Äliḥ BÄdhÄm), adding that he narrated hadith. Elsewhere, they speak of a freedman of Muḥammadâs wife Juwayriyah, named DhakwÄn (full name: AbÅ« á¹¢Äliḥ al-SammÄn DhakwÄn ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh), who likewise narrated hadith. Yet elsewhere, they speak of another DhakwÄn, freedman of the HÄshim clan or of al-Ḥusayn ibn Ê¿AlÄ«. |
| DhiÊ¿lib al-YamÄnÄ« |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), individual from Yemen who asked Ê¿AlÄ« to describe God (§â¯1.177), identified by the sources as among the leaders and narrators of the ShiÊ¿a. (See further: Ḥ 13:18; B 680.) |
| DhÅ« QÄr |
caravan stop east of Kufa in the direction of WÄsiá¹, where Ê¿AlÄ« camped enroute to Basra, where he fought the Battle of the Camel. DhÅ« QÄr was also the site of a major early 7th-century AD battle between the Arabs and the Sasanian Persians. (See further: Ḥ 2:187â188.) |
| DhÅ« al-Rummah, AbÅ« al-ḤÄrith GhaylÄn ibn Ê¿Uqbah |
(d. 117/735), important Bedouin poet of the Umayyad era. |
| DhÅ« al-ShahÄdatayn (The-Twice-Martyred) |
see Khuzaymah ibn al-ThÄbit |
| Dhū al-Thudayyah (The Man with the Breast) |
(d. 38/658), Kharijite killed at NahrawÄn, called thus because of a lump of flesh on his shoulder. Some sources identify DhÅ« al-Thudayyah as ḤurqÅ«á¹£ ibn Zuhayr al-SaÊ¿dÄ«, a leader of the BajÄ«lah tribe, who was killed fighting Ê¿AlÄ« at NahrawÄn. ḤurqÅ«á¹£ is in turn identified as Ê¿Amr DhÅ« al-Khuwayá¹£irah al-TamÄ«mÄ«, who was insolent to Muḥammad regarding the distribution of war spoils. (See further: Ḥ 13:183â184; B 771â772; F 364â365.) |
| á¸Ä«rÄr ibn á¸amrah al-á¸ibÄbÄ« |
(d. after 40/661), of the clan of Fihr from the Quraysh tribe, a loyal associate of Ê¿AlÄ«, reported in several early sources to have spoken eloquently of his late masterâs virtues at the court of Ê¿AlÄ«âs archenemy, MuÊ¿Äwiyah. (See further: Ḥ 18:225â226, R 3:294â295). |
| duÊ¿Äʾ |
supplication. |
| Durayd ibn al-á¹¢immah |
(d. 8/630), of the HawÄzin tribe, famous poet and warrior who lived mostly in the pre-Islamic period. Durayd was reportedly killed at the age of one hundred, fighting against Muḥammad in the Battle of Ḥunayn. |
| DÅ«mat al-Jandal |
site of the post-á¹¢iffÄ«n arbitration in 37/658, with AbÅ« MÅ«sÄ al-AshÊ¿arÄ« and Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£ representing Ê¿AlÄ« and MuÊ¿Äwiyah respectively. It was an oasis on the route between Medina and Damascus in early Islamic times, and part of Syria. It is located today in the Jawf province of Saudi Arabia, southwest of the provincial capital, SakÄkah. |
| Egypt (Ar. Miá¹£r) |
refers in the early Islamic period both to the province and to its capital city, Fusá¹Äá¹. Egypt was conquered by the Muslims in 22/643, under the command of Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£. At the onset of Ê¿AlÄ«âs caliphate, in 35/656, the province pledged allegiance to him, but following the arbitration in 37/658, Ê¿Amr, now MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs chief advisor and governor-designate, killed Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor, Muḥammad ibn AbÄ« Bakr, and took over Egypt. |
| Emigrants (Ar. MuhÄjirÅ«n) |
those who migrated with Muḥammad from Mecca to Medina, and those who migrated from elsewhere to be with him. Along with the Allies, they are revered by later Muslims for their sincere service to Islam in its difficult early years and are considered among Muḥammadâs closest Companions. |
| Euphrates (Ar. FurÄt) |
together with the Tigris, one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia. Originating in Turkey, it flows through Syria and Iraq to join the Tigris and empties into the Arabian/Persian Gulf. The major cities of early Islamic IraqâKufa, Basra, and later Baghdadâwere all built along or near the Euphrates. |
| Fadak |
village near Khaybar, with abundant dates and grain, a three-day journey from Medina in early Islamic times. After Muḥammadâs death, his daughter FÄá¹imah claimed ownership of Fadak as her inherited right, a right denied her by AbÅ« Bakr. The Umayyad caliph Ê¿Umar II (r. 99â101/717â720) returned Fadak to FÄá¹imahâs heirs. |
| faith-leavers (Ar. mÄriqÅ«n) |
appellation applied to the Kharijites. (See further: Ḥ 13:183â184; B 771â772; F 364â365.) |
| Family of the Prophet |
see Ahl al-bayt |
| Farazdaq, AbÅ« FirÄs HammÄm ibn GhÄlib |
(d. 114/732), Umayyad-era poet who composed eulogies for the Umayyad caliphs, also famous for a lengthy poem in praise of the ShiÊ¿i Imam Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n. When Farazdaq was young, his father reportedly brought him to Iraq to visit Ê¿AlÄ«. |
| Fars (Ar. al-FÄris) |
Arabicized form of PÄrs, English Persia, province in southwestern Iran, with Shiraz as its main city. Earlier center of the Achaemenid and Sasanian dynasties, the Muslims conquered Fars in 28/648, and it became a major province of the Islamic empire. |
| FÄá¹imah al-ZahrÄʾ bint Muḥammad |
(d. 11/632), Ê¿AlÄ«âs wife and Muḥammadâs youngest daughter, about whom he said, â¨May my life be ransom for yours, FÄá¹imah, you are the queen of the women of paradise.â© She died young, just two months after her father. FÄá¹imah had four children with Ê¿AlÄ«: Ḥasan, Ḥusayn, Zaynab, and Umm KulthÅ«m, all of whom played key roles in the political and religious life of early Islam. |
| fifth (Ar. khums) |
one-fifth share mandated by the Qurʾan of the spoils of war and other specified forms of income, set aside for the Prophet and other designated beneficiaries (Qurʾan, AnfÄl 8:41). |
| FirÄs ibn Ghanam |
tribe descended from KinÄnah and Muá¸ar, residing in the area north of Mecca in WÄdÄ« QadÄ«d, famous for its membersâ courage and loyalty. (See further: R 1:203; B 211.) |
| Followers-in-Virtue (Ar. al-tÄbiÊ¿Å«na bi-iḥsÄn) |
or Successors, appellation applied to the second generation of Muslims, directly following Muḥammadâs Companions. |
| Freedmen (Ar. á¹ulaqÄʾ) |
derogatory term referring to those members of the Quraysh, including MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs father, AbÅ« SufyÄn, who remained Muḥammadâs committed enemies until forced to capitulate upon his conquest of Mecca. On that day, instead of forcing them into captivity as per the standard practice, Muḥammad pardoned them, saying, âYou are freedmen.â |
| Fusá¹Äá¹ |
originally a military encampment on the Nile alongside the Byzantine fortress of Babylon, built in the wake of the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 22/643, and thence capital of the province of Egypt. It was replaced in 358/969 as the capital by the conquering Fatimidsâ newly built city of Cairo. |
| Gabriel (Ar. Jibrīl) |
archangel in Islamic tradition, who served as Godâs messenger in bringing revelation to the prophets, including Muḥammad. |
| Ghadīr Khumm (Pool of Khumm) |
oasis located 5 kilometers from Juḥfah, on the caravan route between Mecca and Medina, where Muḥammad delivered an important oration to a large gathering of Muslims following his farewell pilgrimage, and declared, âFor whomsoever I am MawlÄ, Ê¿AlÄ« is henceforth his MawlÄ.â The ShiÊ¿a interpret the word MawlÄ here to mean âmasterâ and deem it proof of Muḥammadâs designation of Ê¿AlÄ« as his successor. Sunnis interpret the word to mean âkinsman,â and state that the Prophet said what he said to protect Ê¿AlÄ« from those who wished him harm, but the words did not signify an appointment of succession. GhadÄ«r Khumm is also used to denote the day and the event. |
| GhÄlib ibn á¹¢aÊ¿á¹£aÊ¿ah |
(d. ca. 40/666), TamÄ«mÄ« chieftain famed for his generosity, father of the renowned Umayyad-era poet Farazdaq. A contemporary of Muḥammad, GhÄlib is also said to have visited Ê¿AlÄ« in Iraq and introduced Farazdaq to him; Ê¿AlÄ« advised GhÄlib to teach his son the Qurʾan. (See further: Ḥ 19:96; R 3:441â442.) |
| GhÄmidÄ« |
see SufyÄn ibn Ê¿Awf al-GhÄmidÄ« |
| gharīb |
rare words in Muḥammadâs hadith, Ê¿AlÄ«âs sayings, and elsewhere in the Arabic literary corpus, that medieval critics deemed in need of explication. A section of 9 wisdom sayings in the present volume contains gharÄ«b words. |
| Golden Calf (Ar. Ê¿ijl) |
calf-shaped idol worshipped by the Israelites under the direction of the Samaritan (Ar. SÄmirÄ«), while Moses was on the mountain communing with God. |
| ḤÄá¸irÄ«n |
place in northern Syria where Ê¿AlÄ« reportedly wrote a testament for his son Ḥasan on the way back from á¹¢iffÄ«n. ḤÄá¸irÄ«n does not appear to be mentioned anywhere in the sources; perhaps it is a mistranscription for some form of ḥÄá¸ir, meaning urban space or town. (See further: Ḥ 16:52.) |
| hadith (Ar. ḥadīth) |
often translated as Traditions, these are reports of Muḥammadâs words, deeds, and gestures. The hadith hold a special position of authority and guidance for Muslims, complementing the Qurʾan. |
| Hajar |
town near Bahrain proverbial for its dates. (See further: Ḥ 15:188; B 819; F 372.) |
| hajj (Ar. ḥajj) |
pilgrimage to the Kaʿbah in Mecca mandated once in a lifetime for every Muslim, combining rituals performed by Abraham and Muḥammad. The hajj is performed in the month named for it, Dhū al-Ḥijjah, the final month in the Islamic lunar calendar. |
| al-ḤajjÄj ibn YÅ«suf al-ThaqafÄ« |
(d. 95/714), Umayyad governor of Iraq famed for his eloquence and notorious for his harsh rule. |
| Ḥakīm ibn Jabalah al-ʿAbdī |
(d. 35/656), early Muslim, contemporary of Muḥammad, known for his piety and valor. ḤakÄ«m was killed combating the forces of Ṭalḥah and Zubayr, who were attempting to remove Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor in Basra in the lead-up to the Battle of the Camel. (See further: Ḥ 9:110.) |
| Ḥamal ibn Badr |
(d. late 6th c. AD), pre-Islamic warrior from the clan of FazÄrah of the DhubyÄn tribe, who was killed in the Battle of DÄḥis, a decades-long conflict between the tribes of DhubyÄn and Ê¿Abs, during the latter half of the 6th century AD. (See further: F 374; R 3:82; B 824.) |
| Ḥamal ibn Saʿd al-ʿAshīrah |
(fl. 6th c. AD), pre-Islamic warrior from the clan of Saʿd al-ʿAshīrah of the Madhḥij tribe. |
| HammÄm |
(d. ca. 36/656), devout associate of Ê¿AlÄ« who reportedly passed away upon hearing Ê¿AlÄ«âs oration describing the truly pious, named after him as The Oration to HammÄm (§â¯1.191). Some commentators give his full name as HammÄm ibn Shurayḥ ibn YazÄ«d, while others identify him as HammÄm ibn Ê¿UbÄdah ibn Khuthaym. (See further: Ḥ 10:134; B 599.) |
| Ḥamzah ibn Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib ibn HÄshim |
(d. 3/624), known as King of Martyrs and Godâs Lion, paternal uncle of Muḥammad and Ê¿AlÄ«, who fought valiantly at the Battle of Badr and killed several Meccan warriors in single combat. He was slain by treachery the following year at the Battle of Uḥud by a man who was incited by MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs mother, Hind. Muḥammad grieved deeply for Ḥamzah and recited the funeral prayer for him 70 times, placing Ḥamzahâs bier in front of the bier of each martyr as he prayed for them one by one. |
| Ḥanáºalah ibn AbÄ« SufyÄn |
(d. 2/624), MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs brother from the Umayyah clan of Quraysh, killed by Ê¿AlÄ« in the fighting against Muḥammad at the Battle of Badr. (See further: B 792; R 3:31; F 369.) |
| Ḥarb ibn ShuraḥbÄ«l al-ShibÄmÄ« |
(d. after 37/657), chieftain of the clan of ShibÄm from the Yemeni tribe of HamdÄn, who settled in Kufa. Ḥarb was a follower of Ê¿AlÄ« and fought with him at á¹¢iffÄ«n. |
| Ḥarb ibn Umayyah ibn ʿAbd Shams |
(d. ca. 607â¯AD), MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs grandfather, from the clan of Umayyah of Quraysh, father of Abu SufyÄn and father-in-law of AbÅ« Lahab, both fierce enemies of Muḥammad. Ḥarb was one of the leading chieftains of Mecca in his day. |
| al-ḤÄrith (al-AÊ¿war) al-HamdÄnÄ« |
(d. 65/685), resident of Kufa and a learned man, staunch supporter of Ê¿AlÄ« who participated in his battles. ḤÄrith belonged to the Ḥūth clan of the HamdÄn tribe of Yemen, and his full name is al-ḤÄrith ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn KaÊ¿b al-HamdÄnÄ«. A famous set of verses addressing him by name is attributed to Ê¿AlÄ«. He appears in several reports in the present volume. (See further: Ḥ 17:42â43.) |
| al-ḤÄrith ibn Ḥawá¹ al-LaythÄ« (or Khuá¹, or less likely Ḥawt or Ḥūt) |
(d. after 36/656), a man who challenged Ê¿AlÄ« after the Battle of the Camel over the rightfulness of fighting Ê¿Äʾishah, Ṭalḥah, and Zubayr. Nothing else is found in the sources about ḤÄrith, except discussions regarding the spelling of his fatherâs name, an additional indication that he was not well known. |
| Harlot |
see NÄbighah |
| Ḥarūriyyah (sing. Ḥarūrī) |
twelve thousand men who gathered in ḤarÅ«rÄʾ near Kufa in 37/657 to protest Ê¿AlÄ«âs decision to accept arbitration in his dispute with MuÊ¿Äwiyah over the caliphate. The ḤarÅ«riyyah are considered the first Kharijites. (See further: B 958.). |
| al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī |
(d. 49/669), eldest son of Ê¿AlÄ« and FÄá¹imah, grandson of Muḥammad, and ShiÊ¿a Imam after his father. The Prophet said, â¨á¸¤asan and Ḥusayn are the leaders of the youth of paradise.â© After Ê¿AlÄ«âs death in 40/661, Ḥasan received the pledge of the caliphate in Kufa. He abdicated six months later and returned to Medina, where he was reportedly poisoned on MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs orders ten years later. (See further: Ḥ 16:9â52.) |
| HÄshim |
Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs clan within Quraysh, named after their great-grandfather, HÄshim ibn Ê¿Abd ManÄf. |
| HÄshim ibn Ê¿Abd ManÄf |
(d. ca. 497â¯AD), Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs paternal great-grandfather and custodian of the sanctuary in Mecca. HÄshim used to travel to Syria to trade and he married and set up a second home in Gaza. He died and is buried there in a shrine within the mosque complex named for him. |
| HÄshim ibn Ê¿Utbah al-MirqÄl |
(d. 37/656), tribal chieftain of Kufa, nephew of Muḥammadâs Companion SaÊ¿d ibn AbÄ« WaqqÄá¹£, and one of Ê¿AlÄ«âs staunch supporters. HÄshim was killed at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: Ḥ 6:55â56.) |
| ḤassÄn (or Ashras) ibn ḤassÄn al-BakrÄ« al-BalawÄ« |
(d. 38/658), Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor in Anbar, who was killed by a cavalry troop led by MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs commander, SufyÄn ibn Ê¿Awf al-GhÄmidÄ«. (See further: R 1:214â215; B 215â216; Ḥ 2:75â76, 85â90.) |
| ḤassÄn ibn ThÄbit al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. ca. 40/659 or 50/669 or 54/673), of the Khazraj tribe of Medina, the best-known of several poets associated with the rise of Islam. ḤassÄn was among the handful of prominent Companions who refused to pledge allegiance to Ê¿AlÄ«. |
| ḤÄtim al-ṬÄʾī |
(fl. second half of 6th century AD), pre-Islamic poet of the tribe of Ṭayy, proverbial for his generosity. |
| HawÄzin |
north Arabian tribal federation, including the tribes of Thaqīf and Saʿd ibn Bakr, who fought the Muslims at the Battle of Ḥunayn in 8/630. |
| ḤijÄz |
western part of the Arabian Peninsula, where the cities of Mecca and Medina are located. The province runs along the Red Sea coast and is bordered to the east by the SarÄt Mountains. |
| Hijrah (Migration) |
Muḥammadâs migration from Mecca to Medina in 622â¯AD. The Islamic calendar begins from this year, which is considered the first âHijriâ year. |
| ḥikmah |
wisdom, or wisdom saying, or aphorism. |
| ḤirÄʾ |
mountain located northeast of Mecca, where Muḥammad is said to have spent a month every year immersed in Godâs worship. It is here that he is said to have received his first Qurʾanic revelation. |
| HishÄm ibn Ê¿Abd al-Malik |
(r. 105â125/724â743), Umayyad caliph. |
| HishÄm ibn Muḥammad ibn al-SÄʾib al-KalbÄ« |
(d. 206/821), famous Kufan genealogist and scholar, whose grandfather SÄʾib fought with Ê¿AlÄ« in the Battles of the Camel and á¹¢iffÄ«n. Ibn al-KalbÄ« is also the compiler of a lost book titled Khuá¹ab Ê¿AlÄ« (Orations of Ê¿AlÄ«). (See further: Ḥ 18:66.) |
| HÄ«t |
town in northern Iraq on the Euphrates River toward Syria, site of a raid by MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs commander, SufyÄn ibn Ê¿Awf al-GhÄmidÄ«, in 39/659. (See further F 392; R:219.) |
| House of God |
see Kaʿbah |
| Ḥudaybiyyah (or Ḥudaybiyah) |
village just outside Mecca, site of a peace treaty concluded in 6/628 between Muḥammad and the Quraysh. |
| Ḥujr ibn ʿAdī |
(d. 52/672), Kufan chieftain of the Kindah tribe of Yemen, staunch supporter of Ê¿AlÄ« who fought with him at the Battle of the Camel and at á¹¢iffÄ«n. During MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs caliphate, Ḥujr challenged the Umayyadsâ cursing of Ê¿AlÄ«, and he, along with several other ShiÊ¿is, was tortured and beheaded by MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs governor ZiyÄd. |
| ḤulwÄn |
ancient town situated near the entrance to the Paytak pass through the Zagros range, identified with the present-day village of Sar-i Pul, 33 kilometers east of Qaá¹£r-i ShÄ«rÄ«n, in the Kermanshah province of Iran. ḤulwÄn was a town of note in early Islamic times, and a garrison was stationed there during Ê¿AlÄ«âs caliphate. |
| Ḥunayn |
site of the Battle of Ḥunayn, fought between the Muslims and the HawÄzin tribal confederation in 8/630, following the conquest of Mecca, which ended in a decisive victory for the Muslims. Ḥunayn is a deep valley situated a dayâs journey from Mecca on the road to ṬÄʾif. |
| Ḥurayth (or Ḥarīth) |
Kharijite leader who fled from Iraq to Ramhormoz, against whom Ê¿AlÄ« sent a battalion under MaÊ¿qil ibn Qays in 38/658. (See further: F 369â370.) |
| al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī |
(d. 61/680), second son of Ê¿AlÄ« and FÄá¹imah, grandson of Muḥammad, and ShiÊ¿a Imam after his older brother, Ḥasan. Muḥammad said, â¨á¸¤asan and Ḥusayn are the leaders of the youth of paradise.⩠Ḥusayn was killed by the Umayyads with his family and a handful of supporters at Karbala and is famous in ShiÊ¿i lore as King of Martyrs (sayyid al-shuhadÄʾ). |
| al-Ḥuá¹£ayn (or al-Ḥuá¸ayn) ibn al-Mundhir al-RaqÄshÄ«, AbÅ« SÄsÄn |
(d. ca. 100/718), notable and poet of Basra, among the leading members of the second generation of Muslims, a follower of Ê¿AlÄ«, who carried the banner of RabÄ«Ê¿ah at á¹¢iffÄ«n. Later one of the associates of JaÊ¿far al-á¹¢Ädiq. |
| Iblīs |
(Eng. Lucifer), archdevil condemned in the Qurʾan. Originally a jinni or angel, he refused to bow down before Adam when God commanded him and was expelled from heaven for his disobedience. He vowed to lead the sons of Adam astray in every age. |
| Ibn al-Ê¿AbbÄs |
see Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Ê¿AbbÄs |
| Ibn AbÄ« al-ḤadÄ«d, Ê¿Izz al-DÄ«n Ê¿Abd al-ḤamÄ«d ibn HibatallÄh |
(d. ca. 656/1258), Sunni-MuÊ¿tazilÄ« theologian, âtafá¸Ä«lÄ«â (one who gave precedence to Ê¿AlÄ« over the three earlier Sunni caliphs), and a poet, historian, and literary theorist, best known for his twenty-volume commentary on Nahj al-BalÄghah. An official in the Abbasid state, he held various administrative posts in the capital, Baghdad, just before the Mongol sack. |
| Ibn AbÄ« RÄfiÊ¿ |
see Ê¿UbaydallÄh ibn AbÄ« RÄfiÊ¿ |
| Ibn al-AÊ¿rÄbÄ« |
(d. 231/846), prominent philologist of the Kufan school. |
| Ibn Funduq al-Bayhaqī |
(d. 565/1170), early Sunni commentator of Nahj al-BalÄghah from Khurasan, who relied on the lost, possibly the first, Nahj al-BalÄghah commentary, by Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al-WabrÄ« (fl. early 6th/12th c.), from KhwÄrazm. Ibn Funduq is the author of more than 70 works in Arabic and Persian on history and an encyclopedic range of subjects. |
| Ibn al-Ḥaá¸ramÄ« |
see Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Ḥaá¸ramÄ« |
| Ibn al-Ḥanafiyyah |
see Muḥammad ibn Ê¿AlÄ« ibn AbÄ« ṬÄlib |
| Ibn Ḥunayf |
see Ê¿UthmÄn ibn Ḥunayf al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
| Ibn al-KawwÄʾ |
(d. after 44/664), whose given name was Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn Awfah al-YashkurÄ«, a Kharijite leader who fought against Ê¿AlÄ« at NahrawÄn and escaped. He visited MuÊ¿Äwiyah in 44/664. |
| Ibn al-TayyihÄn AbÅ« al-Haytham al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. 37/657), early convert to Islam from the Medinan tribe of Aws and one of the Allies who fought for Muḥammad in the earliest battles of Badr and Uḥud. Ibn al-TayyihÄn was killed fighting for Ê¿AlÄ« at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: Ḥ 10:107â108; B 590â591.) |
| Ibn Masʿūd |
see Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn MasÊ¿Å«d |
| Ibn Muljam (or Ibn Muljim) al-MurÄdÄ« |
(d. 40/661), of the Kindah tribe of Yemen, the Kharijite who assassinated Ê¿AlÄ«. He was executed by Ê¿AlÄ«âs son and successor, Ḥasan. |
| Ibn NubÄtah al-SaÊ¿dÄ« al-Khaá¹Ä«b |
(d. 374/985), famous Aleppan preacher who memorized a large number of Ê¿AlÄ«âs orations and drew on them for his own. |
| Ibn al-Sikkīt |
(d. 244/858), scholar of Arabic lexicography, poetry, and grammar, author of about twenty books. |
| Ibn Ê¿Umar |
see Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn Ê¿Umar |
| Ibn al-Zubayr |
see Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Zubayr |
| ʿĪd al-Aá¸á¸¥Ä |
Eid of Sacrifice, major feast day following the hajj, on 10th Dhū al-Ḥijjah. |
| ʿĪd al-Fiá¹r |
Eid of Breaking-the-Fast, major feast day following the fasting month of Ramaá¸Än, on 1st ShawwÄl. |
| ʿIkrimah ibn Abī Jahl |
(d. 13/634 or 15/636), from the MakhzÅ«m clan, son of Muḥammadâs fierce enemy and a leader of the Quraysh in their battles against Muḥammad. Ê¿Ikrimah fled to Yemen near the time of the Muslim conquest of Mecca in 10/632 but was later pardoned. AbÅ« Bakr appointed him to command Muslim expeditions in Yemen and Syria; he was likely killed fighting the Byzantines in the Battle of AjnÄdayn in Palestine in 13/634. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| imam (Ar. imÄm) |
lit. leader, refers either to the supreme leader of the Muslim community or to an exemplary scholar or prayer-leader. In Shia doctrine, the term denotes the Prophet Muḥammad, his legatee, Ê¿AlÄ«, and their descendants, one in each age, who inherit their role of spiritual and temporal leadership, who are divinely guided and sole legitimate leaders of the Muslim community. The concept is rendered as Imamate (Ar. imÄmah). |
| Ê¿ImrÄn ibn al-Ḥuá¹£ayn al-KhuzÄÊ¿Ä« |
(d. 52/672), converted to Islam in 7/628 and settled in Basra soon after the conquest of Iraq. He was among the handful of early Muslims who refused to pledge allegiance to Ê¿AlÄ«, and he actively attempted to dissuade the Iraqis from supporting Ê¿AlÄ«. Ê¿ImrÄn fell ill soon thereafter and lived with chronic illness for nearly two decades until his death. (See further: Ḥ 17:132.) |
| Imruʾ al-Qays ibn Ḥujr al-Kindī |
(d. ca. 550â¯AD), ranked by medieval criticsâand by Ê¿AlÄ«âas the best pre-Islamic poet, one of the composers of the celebrated Hanging Odes. Princely descendant of the Kindah, Imruʾ al-Qays is often called the Wandering King. |
| Iraq (Ar. Ê¿IrÄq) |
important province in the early Islamic empire, conquered 14â17/635â638. Its major cities in Ê¿AlÄ«âs reign were Basra and Kufa, the seat of his caliphate. |
| Isaac (Ar. IsḥÄq) |
a prophet in Islam, son of the Prophet Abraham and ancestor of the Jews. |
| Ishmael (Ar. IsmÄÊ¿Ä«l) |
a prophet in Islam, son of the Prophet Abraham, and ancestor of the Arabs. Muḥammad and ʿAlī reportedly descend from his line. |
| IskÄfÄ«, AbÅ« JaÊ¿far Muḥammad ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh |
(d. 240/854), Baghdadi MuÊ¿tazilÄ« who lived to a great age, and âtafá¸Ä«lÄ«â Sunni, who maintained Ê¿AlÄ«âs superiority to all other Companions of Muḥammad. Among IskÄfÄ«âs lost works is KitÄb al-MaqÄmÄt fÄ« tafá¸Ä«l Ê¿AlÄ« (Book of exhortations, on Ê¿AlÄ«âs superiority). (See further: Ḥ 17:132â133; B 913.) |
| Iá¹£á¹akhr |
town in the Fars district of Iran, an hourâs journey north of the ancient Achaemenid capital Persepolis, religious center of the Sasanian kingdom. The Muslims conquered it in 23/643 and it remained a fairly important place during the early centuries of Islam. |
| JÄbir ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. ca. 78/697), early Companion and one of the Allies, resident of Medina from the tribe of Khazraj. He pledged allegiance to Muḥammad at Ê¿Aqabah before the Emigration and remained a staunch supporter of Ê¿AlÄ«, fighting in all his battles. He died in MadÄʾin, near present-day Baghdad, in his nineties. JÄbir was a prolific narrator of Muḥammadâs hadith and Ê¿AlÄ«âs words. |
| Jaʿdah ibn Hubayrah al-Makhzūmī |
(d. after 40/661), Ê¿AlÄ«âs nephew, son of his sister Umm HÄnÄ«, a brave warrior and a learned man. JaÊ¿dah was close to Ê¿AlÄ« and served as his governor in Khurasan. (See further: Ḥ 10:77â78; B 585; Ḥ 13:130; B 679.) |
| JaÊ¿far ibn AbÄ« ṬÄlib |
(d. 8/629), Ê¿AlÄ«âs older brother, commander of Muḥammadâs forces at the Battle of Muʾtah, killed with his arms cut off in the battle. Muḥammad bestowed on him the epithets ṬayyÄr, âHe-Who-Soars-in-Paradise,â and DhÅ« al-JanÄḥayn, âHe-of-the-Two-Wings.â He is buried in Muʾtah, in the south of present-day Jordan. |
| JaÊ¿far al-á¹¢Ädiq ibn Muḥammad al-BÄqir, AbÅ« Ê¿AbdallÄh |
(d. 148/765), great-grandson of the Prophetâs grandson Ḥusayn, recognized by the IsmaÊ¿ili and Twelver ShiÊ¿a as the Imam succeeding his father, Muḥammad al-BÄqir. He spent most of his life in Medina and died there. Known as al-á¹¢Ädiq, The Truthful, he, like his father, is the source of many oral reports in ShiÊ¿i tradition. JaÊ¿far al-á¹¢Ädiq is also reported to be the teacher of two eponymous founders of Sunni legal schools, AbÅ« ḤanÄ«fah and MÄlik. |
| JÄḥiáº, Ê¿Amr ibn Baḥr |
(d. 255/868), prolific author who wrote some 240 books and essays on diverse topics, of which 75 survive whole or in part. Among his most famous full-length books is the 4-volume al-BayÄn wa-l-tabyÄ«n (Eloquence and exposition), mentioned by Raá¸Ä«. He cites and praises Ê¿AlÄ«âs words frequently in his books, and a compilation of Ê¿AlÄ«âs sayings titled Miʾat kalimah (One Hundred Proverbs) is also attributed to him. |
| JarÄ«r ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh al-BajalÄ« |
(d. after 55/675), of the BajÄ«lah tribe, converted to Islam shortly before Muḥammadâs death and settled in Kufa, later becoming Ê¿UthmÄnâs governor in HamadhÄn. Dismissed by Ê¿AlÄ«, he came to Kufa and pledged allegiance, then served as Ê¿AlÄ«âs emissary to MuÊ¿Äwiyah in the lead-up to á¹¢iffÄ«n and later as his governor in HamadhÄn. According to the sources JarÄ«r remained secretly pro-Umayyad. (See further: Ḥ 3:70â74.) |
| JÄriyah ibn QudÄmah al-SaÊ¿dÄ« |
(d. before 67/686), from the tribe of Tamīm, was a Companion of the Prophet and staunch supporter of ʿAlī. He died in Basra. |
| al-JÄrÅ«d al-Ê¿AbdÄ«, Bishr ibn Khunays ibn al-MuÊ¿allÄ |
(d. 21/642), chieftain of Ê¿Abd al-Qays who came with a delegation from his tribe to Muḥammad in Medina ca. 9/630 and converted to Islam. JÄrÅ«d dissuaded the Ê¿Abd al-Qays from apostatizing after Muḥammadâs death. He was killed fighting with the Muslims during their conquest of Persia. (See further: Ḥ 18:55â57.) |
| Jesus (Ar. ʿĪsÄ) |
a prophet in Islam. In the Qurʾan, he is called the Son of Mary, the Messiah (masīḥ), the Word (kalimah), and the Spirit (rūḥ). |
| jihad (Ar. jihÄd) |
righteous struggle against the forces of evil. Jihad can refer equally to battle with outside enemies or combat with oneâs own base instincts. |
| jinn |
category of beings created from fire, non-corporeal spirits, believed to possess powers for evil and good. |
| Jisr al-NahrawÄn (The Bridge of NahrawÄn) |
see NahrawÄn |
| Jumaḥ |
clan of the Quraysh. |
| Jumayḥ ibn al-Sharīd al-Taghlibī |
(d. ca. 570â¯AD), pre-Islamic warrior and poet cited as a source of proverbial verses. Jumayḥ is sometimes said to be the sobriquet of Munqidh ibn al-ṬammÄḥ al-AsadÄ«. |
| Kaʿbah |
cuboid in Mecca, the holiest sanctuary of Islam, reportedly built by the Prophet Abraham, also called The House of God (Bayt AllÄh). Muslim worshippers throughout the world face the KaÊ¿bah in their daily prayer, and hundreds of thousands of pilgrims circumambulate it every year during the hajj and Ê¿umrah pilgrimages. |
| Kalb |
Arabian lineage group of the Quá¸ÄÊ¿ah tribal federation. Predominantly camel-breeding pastoralists, the Kalb comprised powerful clans in the deserts between Syria and Iraq in pre-Islamic times and later were allies of the Umayyads. |
| KhabbÄb ibn al-Aratt |
(d. 37/63), one of the earliest converts to Islam and an eminent Companion of Muḥammad. As a freed slave of Nabataean origin, he suffered cruel torture at the hands of the Quraysh in Mecca because of his conversion. A strong supporter of Ê¿AlÄ«, he died in Kufa soon after Ê¿AlÄ« left for á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: Ḥ 18:171â172; B 947.) |
| Khadījah bint Khuwaylid |
(d. 619â¯AD), Muḥammadâs first wife, the first Muslim, mother of all but one (IbrÄhÄ«m, son of MÄriyah the Copt) of Muḥammadâs children: daughters FÄá¹imah, Zaynab, Ruqayyah, and Umm KulthÅ«m, and two sons, QÄsim and Ê¿AbdallÄh, both of whom died in infancy. |
| KhÄlid ibn al-WalÄ«d |
(d. 21/642), from the Makhzūm clan of Meccan Quraysh, lauded by Sunnis for his prominent role as military commander in the conquests of Iraq and Syria and condemned by the Shiʿis for his antagonism toward ʿAlī. |
| Kharijites (Ar. KhawÄrij, sing. KhÄrijÄ«, Eng. Seceders) |
strongly militarist group of Muslims who seceded from Ê¿AlÄ«âs following subsequent to the post-á¹¢iffÄ«n arbitration. With the anti-Ê¿AlÄ« dictum, â¨No rule save Godâs!â© (lÄ á¸¥ukma illÄ li-llÄh), they killed any who disagreed. Ê¿AlÄ« fought and defeated them at the Battle of NahrawÄn in 38/658. Most Kharijite factions eventually died out; they survive today as the milder IbÄá¸Ä« denomination in Oman and North Africa. (See further: Ḥ 4:132â278.) |
| Khaybar |
oasis 150 kilometers north of Medina, famous for its abundance of date palms, with a large Jewish population in pre-Islamic times. Khaybar was the site of a major battle between Muḥammad and the Jews in 7/628. ʿAlī played a major role in the Muslim victory when he slew the Jewish champion Marḥab in single combat. |
| al-KhirrÄ«t ibn RÄshid al-NÄjÄ« |
(d. 38/658), chieftain of the NÄjiyah tribe, which had converted to Islam and who, under his leadership, deserted from Ê¿AlÄ«âs army after the post-á¹¢iffÄ«n arbitration and reverted to Christianity. Ê¿AlÄ« sent troops under MaÊ¿qil ibn Qays al-RiyÄḥī to fight them, and KhirrÄ«t was killed in the ensuing battle. (See further: Ḥ 3:120â151.) |
| Khurasan (Ar. KhurÄsÄn) |
region comprising present-day northeastern Iran, Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia. In Sasanian times, Khurasan was one of the four great provincial governorates. The Muslims conquered it ca. 30/651, and it remained one of the richest provinces of the early Islamic period. |
| Khushnūshak |
Persian merchant clan, which ʿAlī encountered in Anbar, in northern Iraq, in 36/656, on the march toward the Battle of Ṣiffīn. |
| khuá¹bah (oration) |
official discourse serving various religious, political, legislative, military, and other purposes, and containing diverse themes of piety, policy, exhortation to battle, and law. In modern usage, the term almost exclusively denotes the ritual Friday sermon. |
| Khuzaymah ibn ThÄbit al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. 37/657), famous as DhÅ« al-ShahÄdatayn, The Twice-Martyred, from Muḥammadâs hadith stating that his martyrdom had a twofold worth. DhÅ« al-ShahÄdatayn was an early convert to Islam from the Medinan tribe of Aws and one of the Allies who fought for Muḥammad at Badr and Uḥud. He was killed fighting for Ê¿AlÄ« at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: Ḥ 10:107â108; B 591; n. 3 of R 2:192.) |
| Kirman (or Kerman, Ar. KirmÄn) |
province in the southwest of present-day Iran, adjacent to the province of Fars, conquered by the Muslims in ca. 17/638. |
| kitab |
letter or book. The Book (Ar. KitÄb) is the Qurʾan. |
| Kufa |
garrison city founded in 17/638, during the Muslim conquests along the Euphrates, on the alluvial plains of Iraq. The city served as Ê¿AlÄ«âs capital and remained a center for ShiÊ¿i Islam for centuries afterward. Today it is a suburb of Najaf, the city that houses Ê¿AlÄ«âs shrine, and a place of pilgrimage. |
| Kulayb al-Jarmī |
(d. after 61/680), son of ShihÄb ibn al-MajnÅ«n, a Basran (also identified as Kufan, perhaps having moved there during Ê¿AlÄ«âs caliphate) who is said to have been an associate of Ê¿AlÄ«, his sons Ḥasan and Ḥusayn, and his grandson Ê¿AlÄ« Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n. |
| Kumayl ibn ZiyÄd al-NakhaÊ¿Ä« |
(d. 82/701), close companion of Ê¿AlÄ« who fought at á¹¢iffÄ«n and served as governor of HÄ«t, a frontier town in the north of Iraq. He narrated Ê¿AlÄ«âs words and the famous Kumaylâs Prayer is one he is said to have learned from Ê¿AlÄ«. Kumayl, alongside other staunch and vocal supporters of Ê¿AlÄ«, was executed by the Umayyad governor ḤajjÄj. (See further: Ḥ 17:149â150.) |
| LaylÄ bint MasÊ¿Å«d ibn KhÄlid al-Nahshaliyyah |
(d. ca. 61/681), Ê¿AlÄ«âs wife whom he married during the early part of his caliphate in Basra. She bore him three sons: two died fighting for Ḥusayn in Karbala. In some reports, LaylÄ also accompanied Ḥusayn to Karbala. She died soon thereafter in Medina. (See further: F 271â272.) |
| Lucifer |
see Iblīs |
| MadÄʾin |
lit. The Cities, metropolis of several adjacent cities on the Tigris River, 32 kilometers southeast of Abbasid Baghdad; one of them, Ctesiphon, was the Sasanian capital. At the time of the Muslim conquest in 16/637, Ctesiphon was the residence of the Jewish Exilarch and the Nestorian Catholicos. It was home to a population of around 130,000, with diverse faiths including Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians, and varied ethnicities, including Aramaeans, Greeks, Persians, and Syrians. |
| Madhḥij |
large tribal group in the southern Arabian Peninsula and Yemen. Madhḥij played an important role in the early Muslim conquests, especially of Egypt. They fought with Ê¿AlÄ« at á¹¢iffÄ«n, under the leadership of MÄlik al-Ashtar. |
| Mahdī |
lit. The Rightly Guided One, the Messiah who will come at the end of time and institute an era of justice and peace. The Mahdī is a descendant of Muḥammad. |
| Makhzūm |
prominent clan of Quraysh. (See further: BÂ 964.) |
| MÄlik |
angel who guards the gates of hell. |
| MÄlik ibn al-ḤÄrith al-Ashtar al-NakhaÊ¿Ä« |
(d. ca. 37/658), tribal chieftain of the Madhḥij tribe of Kufa, one of the foremost warriors of the early Muslim conquests and one of Ê¿AlÄ«âs strongest supporters. Ê¿AlÄ« sent Ashtar as governor to Egypt, where he was reportedly poisoned at MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs behest. Earlier, he had been among the group who called for Ê¿UthmÄnâs resignation. (See further: Ḥ 15:98â102; B 888.) |
| Maʾmūn |
(r. 198â218/813â833), Abbasid caliph. |
| MaÊ¿qil ibn Qays al-RiyÄḥī |
(d. 43/663), chieftain of the TamÄ«m tribe of Kufa, loyal supporter of Ê¿AlÄ«. MaÊ¿qil commanded battalions at the Battle of the Camel and á¹¢iffÄ«n and led troops against renegade groups during Ê¿AlÄ«âs caliphate. Later, he was killed fighting the Kharijites. (See further: Ḥ 3:120â151, 15:92; B 794; F 369â370.) |
| Maʾrib (or MÄrib) |
site of a great dam and capital of the Sabaean realm in southwest Arabia, ruled in classical antiquity by the legendary BilqÄ«s, Queen of Sheba (Sabaʾ, or SabÄ), whose story is recounted together with the story of Solomon in the Qurʾan (Q Naml 27:20â44). The Qurʾan also speaks of a devastating flood that submerged the gardens of Sheba and brought drought (Q Sabaʾ 34:15â17). Present-day Maʾrib is the main town of the district of the same name, 135 kilometers east of Sanaa. |
| mÄriqÅ«n |
see faith-leavers |
| MarwÄn ibn al-Ḥakam |
(r. 64â65/684â685), first caliph of the MarwÄnid branch of the Umayyads, earlier exiled along with his father from Medina by Muḥammad. MarwÄn returned to become a key supporter of his cousin Ê¿UthmÄn. He fought against Ê¿AlÄ« in the Battle of the Camel but reluctantly pledged allegiance to him when defeated. (See further: Ḥ 6:148â165.) |
| Mary (Ar. Maryam) |
holy woman in Islam, mother of the Prophet Jesus. An entire chapter of the Qurʾan is named for her, which relates there and elsewhere the story of her upbringing by Zachariah, her receiving food directly from God, her miraculous conception and birth of Jesus. |
| Masʿadah ibn Ṣadaqah al-ʿAbdī |
(fl. 2nd/8th c.), one of the associates of the ShiÊ¿i Imams Muḥammad al-BÄqir and JaÊ¿far al-á¹¢Ädiq, who narrated their words. MasÊ¿adah is the author of a lost book titled Khuá¹ab AmÄ«r al-MuʾminÄ«n (Orations of the Commander of the Faithful). |
| Mashrafī sword |
an excellent type of blade, so called in relation to MashÄrif, a town in Yemen, or to certain towns called the MashÄrif of Syria. |
| Maá¹£qalah ibn Hubayrah al-ShaybÄnÄ« |
(d. 50/670), of the Bakr tribe, Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor in ArdashÄ«r-khurrah. Maá¹£qalah is noted for purchasing the freedom of the NÄjiyah war captives from Ê¿AlÄ«âs commander MaÊ¿qil ibn Qays, then fleeing to MuÊ¿Äwiyah without paying. After Ê¿AlÄ«âs death, he remained in MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs service and participated in the killing of Ê¿AlÄ«âs supporter Ḥujr ibn Ê¿AdÄ«. MuÊ¿Äwiyah sent Maá¹£qalah to conquer ṬabaristÄn, where he was killed. (See further: Ḥ 3:120â151.) |
| maysir |
pre-Islamic game of chance that involved drawing arrows to determine the division of a slaughtered camelâs meat; the man who drew the longest arrow won the choicest part. The Qurʾan condemns the practice as Satanâs handiwork (Q Baqarah 2:219; MÄʾidah 5:90â91.) |
| Mecca (Ar. Makkah) |
holiest city of Islam, birthplace of Muḥammad and Ê¿AlÄ«, home to the KaÊ¿bah and locus of worship for Muslims worldwide. In pre-Islamic times, Mecca was the abode of the Quraysh tribe and a site of pilgrimage. Muḥammad spent his youth and the first thirteen years of his mission there. Mecca is also known as Umm al-QurÄ (Mother of all Cities), Baá¹á¸¥Äʾ (The Flatland), and Bakkah. |
| Medina (Ar. Madīnah) |
second holiest city of Islam, Muḥammadâs home for his final ten years, after he had migrated from Mecca, and capital of the Islamic polity during the first three caliphates. It is located 160 kilometers from the Red Sea and 350 kilometers north of Mecca, in the ḤijÄz province of present-day Saudi Arabia. Medina is short for MadÄ«nat al-NabÄ«, City of the Prophet. It is also known as Ṭaybah (The Pure City) and DÄr al-Hijrah (Home of Migration). In pre-Islamic times, it was a flourishing and fertile settlement named Yathrib, populated by the pagan tribes of Aws and Khazraj, and the Jewish tribes of Naá¸Ä«r, QaynuqÄÊ¿, and Qurayáºah, who collectively invited Muḥammad to settle there as its chief. |
| Messiah (Ar. Masīḥ) |
an epithet of Jesus, a prophet in Islam. |
| Michael (Ar. MÄ«kÄʾīl) |
an archangel of Islamic tradition, mentioned in the Qurʾan and paired with Gabriel. |
| Migration |
see Hijrah |
| MÄ«kÄʾīl |
see Michael. |
| Mikhnaf ibn Sulaym al-Azdī |
(d. 65/684), embraced Islam, along with his tribal delegation, at Muḥammadâs hands. Afterward, he fought at the Battle of QÄdisiyyah in Iraq and settled in Kufa. Mikhnaf was a strong supporter of Ê¿AlÄ«. He commanded the AzdÄ« battalion in Ê¿AlÄ«âs battles and served as Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor in Isfahan. Later, after Ê¿AlÄ«âs son Ḥusayn was martyred at Karbala, Mikhnaf joined the TawwÄbÅ«n (Penitents), who sought revenge for Ḥusaynâs death, and was killed in the ensuing Battle of Ê¿Ayn al-Wardah. Mikhnafâs grandson, the important historian AbÅ« Mikhnaf LÅ«á¹ ibn YaḥyÄ (d. 157/774), relates much of his material on Ê¿AlÄ« and Ḥusayn from his grandfather. |
| al-MiqdÄd ibn Ê¿Amr al-BaḥrÄʾī |
(d. 33/653), also known as al-MiqdÄd ibn al-Aswad, staunch supporter of Ê¿AlÄ«, Companion of Muḥammad, and one of the first Muslims. Earlier, after an altercation in his homeland of Kindah, in Yemen, MiqdÄd fled to Mecca, where he was adopted by al-Aswad ibn Ê¿Abd YaghÅ«th al-ZuhrÄ«. He fought in all Muḥammadâs battles and was given command in several. Later, he took part in the Muslim conquest of Syria. |
| Moses (Ar. MÅ«sÄ) |
prophet in Islam |
| Mosul (Ar. Mawá¹£il) |
fortress city in north Iraq, important in early Islamic times, located on the Tigris River, opposite ancient Nineveh. After the Muslim conquest of Nineveh in 20/641, Mosul was set up nearby as a military camp city. |
| MuÊ¿Äwiyah ibn AbÄ« SufyÄn |
(d. 60/680), major enemy of Ê¿AlÄ« and the first Umayyad caliph. MuÊ¿Äwiyah was Ê¿UthmÄnâs cousin and had served as governor of Syria under him and earlier under Ê¿Umar. He refused to accept Ê¿AlÄ« as caliph and fought him, with the support of the people of Syria, at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n, in 37/657. After Ê¿AlÄ«âs death in 40/661, Ê¿AlÄ«âs son Ḥasan concluded a peace agreement and MuÊ¿Äwiyah became caliph. He ruled from Damascus for 20 years. (See further: Ḥ 6:334â340.) |
| Muá¸ar |
one of the two largest tribal federations in ancient north Arabia (the other is RabÄ«Ê¿ah). The federation is named for Muá¸ar ibn NizÄr ibn MaÊ¿add ibn Ê¿AdnÄn, eponymous ancestor of Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs tribe of Quraysh. (See further: B 772; Ḥ 13:198.) |
| al-Mughīrah ibn Shuʿbah al-Thaqafī |
(d. ca. 50/670), late Emigrant notorious for the laxness of his faith and for his political cunning. MughÄ«rah was appointed governor of Basra by Ê¿Umar, then dismissed for indecency. He returned to Iraq to serve as Ê¿UthmÄnâs governor in Kufa, and again after Ê¿AlÄ«âs death under MuÊ¿Äwiyah, at which time he openly cursed Ê¿AlÄ« on the pulpit. He had been among those who refused to pledge allegiance to Ê¿AlÄ« after Ê¿UthmÄnâs death. (See further: Ḥ 20:8â10.) |
| al-Mughīrah ibn al-Akhnas ibn Shurayq al-Thaqafī |
(d. 35/656), poet from the ThaqÄ«f tribe, close associate of Ê¿UthmÄn (he was killed alongside him), and keen enemy of Ê¿AlÄ«. MughÄ«rahâs brother AbÅ« al-Ḥakam had been among the Meccans Ê¿AlÄ« had slain at the Battle of Uḥud. MughÄ«rahâs father, Akhnas, Muḥammadâs fierce enemy, had accepted Islam reluctantly following the conquest of Mecca; presumably, MughÄ«rah also converted then. (See further: Ḥ 8:301â303.) |
| Muḥammad al-BÄqir ibn Ê¿AlÄ« Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n, AbÅ« JaÊ¿far |
(d. ca. 114/732), grandson of the Prophetâs grandson Ḥusayn, recognized by the IsmaÊ¿ili and Twelver ShiÊ¿a as the Imam after his father, Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n. He was a child when he accompanied his father and grandfather to Karbala. Known as al-BÄqir or BÄqir al-Ê¿ilm, âthe one who possesses full knowledge,â he is the source of many oral reports in ShiÊ¿i tradition. He spent his life in Medina and died there. |
| Muḥammad ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh |
(d. 11/632), Prophet of Islam and Messenger of God (RasÅ«l AllÄh). |
| Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr |
(d. 38/658), Ê¿AlÄ«âs ward and staunch supporter. His father, the first caliph, AbÅ« Bakr, died when he was a child, and Ê¿AlÄ«, who married his widowed mother, AsmÄʾ bint Ê¿Umays, raised him. Muḥammad fought alongside Ê¿AlÄ« at the Battle of the Camel, against his sister Ê¿Äʾishah. Serving for a short time as Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor in Egypt, he was tortured and killed by MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs commander Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£ when Ê¿Amr captured Egypt after the arbitration. (See further: Ḥ 6:53â54, 16:142â143; B 861; R 1:295.) |
| Muḥammad ibn Ê¿AlÄ« ibn AbÄ« ṬÄlib |
(d. 81/700), also known as Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥanafiyyah and Ibn al-Ḥanafiyyah, Ê¿AlÄ«âs son, Ḥasanâs and Ḥusaynâs half-brother, who was active in his fatherâs service, especially at á¹¢iffÄ«n. In Umayyad times, the Kufan chieftain al-MukhtÄr al-ThaqafÄ« led a major rebellion in Iraq in Ibn al-Ḥanafiyyahâs name. |
| Muḥammad ibn MarwÄn |
(d. 101/719), son of the Umayyad caliph MarwÄn I and half-brother of the Umayyad caliph Ê¿Abd al-Malik, Muḥammad served as governor of Armenia under Ê¿Abd al-Malik and as the commander of military expeditions. |
| Muḥammad ibn Maslamah al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. 43/663 or 45/666), of the Aws tribe of Medina, an early convert to Islam who later participated in the conquest of Egypt. He was among a handful of Companions who refused to pledge allegiance to ʿAlī and sat out his battles. |
| al-Mundhir ibn al-JÄrÅ«d al-Ê¿AbdÄ« |
(d. 61/681), recalcitrant Kufan chieftain who initially fought alongside Ê¿AlÄ« at the Battle of the Camel, but later, when appointed governor of Fars, stole from the treasury and was dismissed. In 61/681, two decades after Ê¿AlÄ«âs death, when al-Ḥusayn ibn Ê¿AlÄ« sent a messenger to Mundhir asking for help, he turned the messenger over to the Umayyad governor Ibn ZiyÄd for execution. As a reward, Ibn ZiyÄd appointed Mundhir governor of Sind, where he died almost immediately. (See further: Ḥ 17:55â57.) |
| Muʾtah |
a town two hours south of Karak, in present-day Jordan, site of a battle between the Muslims and the Byzantines in 8/629, in which three Muslim commanders were killed, one following the other, including Ê¿AlÄ«âs brother JaÊ¿far al-ṬayyÄr. Three years later, the Muslims returned, under the command of UsÄmah ibn Zayd, to defeat the Byzantines. |
| Muʿtazilah (sing. Muʿtazilī) |
rationalist school of Islamic theology, which used the dialectics of Greek philosophy. Its subscribers called themselves âpeople of unity and justiceâ (ahl al-tawḥīd wa-l-Ê¿adl), meaning that they were strictly non-anthropomorphic proponents of Godâs oneness and advocates for his justice and thus of human free will. |
| NÄbighah |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), âThe Harlot,â lit. âthe woman who shows herself,â infamous appellation of Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£âs mother in pre-Islamic times. Her given name is not mentioned in the sources. (See further: Ḥ 6:283; B 335; M 1:415.) |
| NahÄwand (or NihÄwand or NahÄvand or NihÄvand) |
town in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran, 80 kilometers south of the city of HamadhÄn, site of a battle in 21/642 between the Muslims and the Persian Sasanians, in which the Muslims won a decisive victory. |
| NahrawÄn (present-day Sifwah) |
also called Jisr al-NahrawÄn, a town in the lower DiyÄlÄ region east of the Tigris River in Iraq, location of a battle between Ê¿AlÄ« and the Kharijite defectors from his á¹¢iffÄ«n army under Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn Wahb, on 9 Safar 38/17 July 658. Persuaded by Ê¿AlÄ«âs speech, over a thousand Kharijite fighters left without fighting. Of the 2,800 men remaining, a handful fled during the battle, the 400 wounded were pardoned by Ê¿AlÄ«, and the rest were killed. (See further: Ḥ 2:265â283; B 245â246.) |
| NÄjiyah |
Christian tribe in pre-Islamic times of contested origins (NÄjiyah is their eponymous mother), many of whom had converted to Islam. The NÄjiyah tribe served in Ê¿AlÄ«âs army in the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n, then deserted under the leadership of al-KhirrÄ«t ibn RÄshid and reverted to Christianity. (See further: Ḥ 3:120â151.) |
| nÄkithÅ«n |
see pledge-breakers |
| Naṣībīn |
classical Nasibis or Nisibis or Nesbin, Nusaybin in modern Turkey, where it is now located, earlier in northern Iraq. An ancient, fortified, frontier city on the HirmÄs River, conquered by the Muslims in 18/639. |
| Nawf ibn Faá¸Älah al-BikÄlÄ« |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), member of the BikÄl clan of the Ḥimyar tribe of Yemen, an associate of Ê¿AlÄ«. (See further: B 585; Ḥ 10:76â77, 18:265â266.) |
| Night of Clamor (Ar. laylat al-harīr) |
Thursday-Friday 7â8 á¹¢afar 37/27â28 July 658, the final, bloody night of the two-month Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n, between the forces of Ê¿AlÄ« and MuÊ¿Äwiyah. (See further: B 289.) |
| nock (Ar. fūq) |
notch at the end of an arrow into which the bowstring fits, fūq also indicates a broken nock. |
| Nukhaylah |
town in Iraq near Kufa, on the road to Syria, where Ê¿AlÄ« stopped enroute to á¹¢iffÄ«n. It is said to correspond to present-day KhÄn Ibn Nukhaylah, located between Karbala and Kufa. |
| al-NuÊ¿mÄn ibn Ê¿AjlÄn al-ZuraqÄ« |
(d. after 40/661), from the Zurayq clan of the Khazraj tribe, one of the leaders of Muḥammadâs Allies in Medina, and a poet. Outspoken in supporting Ê¿AlÄ«âs right to the caliphate over AbÅ« Bakr, NuÊ¿mÄn was also one of the thirty witnesses who testified to Muḥammadâs appointment of Ê¿AlÄ« at GhadÄ«r Khumm, when Ê¿AlÄ« called on them in Kufa. He participated in á¹¢iffÄ«n and served as âAlÄ«âs governor in Bahrain. (See further: Ḥ 16:174; B 869.) |
| al-NuÊ¿mÄn ibn BashÄ«r al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. 65/684), among the handful of Medinans who refused to pledge allegiance to Ê¿AlÄ« after Ê¿UthmÄnâs death and the only person from the Allies who became MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs staunch supporter. According to some reports, NuÊ¿mÄn brought Ê¿UthmÄnâs bloodstained shirt to Damascus, and MuÊ¿Äwiyah then exhibited it in the mosque. He fought with MuÊ¿Äwiyah against Ê¿AlÄ« in the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n, and he undertook an expedition against Ê¿Ayn al-Tamr on Ê¿AlÄ«âs frontier in 39/659 but was forced to retreat. (Ḥ 1:301â306.) |
| oath of allegiance (bayʿah) |
formal profession of loyalty and obedience rendered, with an oath, to the Prophet and the Caliphs by each of their subjects. |
| Pharaoh (Ar. Firʿawn) |
title of the ancient rulers of Egypt in the Qurʾan, Pharaoh is condemned as an evil ruler who refused to obey God and his messenger, Moses. |
| Persia |
see Fars |
| Persian empire (Ar. Furs) |
ruled by the Sasanian dynasty, defeated by the Muslims in the Battle of QÄdisiyyah in Iraq (bet. 14â17/635â638) and the Battle of NahÄwand in Iran (21/642). |
| pilgrimage |
see hajj and Ê¿umrah |
| pledge of allegiance |
see oath of allegiance |
| pledge-breakers (Ar. nÄkithÅ«n) |
appellation of those who fought Ê¿AlÄ« at the Battle of the Camel. (See further: Ḥ 13:183â184; B 771â772; F 364â365.) |
| protected peoples (Ar. ahl al-dhimmah) |
also called âpeople with a covenant,â members of revealed religions, to whom the early Islamic state provided protected status. |
| Psalms (Ar. Zabūr, pl. Zubur) |
Davidâs book of hymns, to which reference is made in the Qurʾan. |
| QÄdisiyyah |
small town south of present-day Najaf in Iraq, site of a major Muslim victory over the Sasanians in ca. 16/637, which opened Iraq and Persia to further conquest. |
| QarqÄ«siyÄ (Latin: Circesium) |
Roman fortress city near the junction of the Euphrates and KhÄbÅ«r rivers at the empireâs eastern frontier, corresponding to the present-day village of Buá¹£ayrah. Conquered by the Muslims in 18/638, QarqÄ«siyÄ continued to be contested by competing Muslim states due to its strategic location between Syria and Iraq. |
| Qaṣīr ibn Saʿd al-Lakhmī |
(fl. 3rd c. AD), proverbial counsellor to the pre-Islamic Iraqi AzdÄ« king JadhÄ«mah ibn MÄlik ibn Naá¹£r. JadhÄ«mah was killed by Zenobia (Ar. ZabbÄʾ), Queen of Palmyra, whose father he had killed, and whom he had set out to wed against Qaṣīrâs advice. |
| qÄsiá¹Å«n |
see wrongdoers |
| Qays ibn Saʿd |
(d. ca. 59/678), son of Muḥammadâs Companion SaÊ¿d ibn Ê¿UbÄdah al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ«, Qays was Ê¿AlÄ«âs first governor in Egypt and one of his commanders at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: Ḥ 10:112; B 591.) |
| Qiblah |
direction of the Kaʿbah in Mecca, which all Muslims face in ritual prayer. People of the Qiblah refers to Muslims. |
| Qurʾan (Ar. QurʾÄn) |
holy book of the Muslims, revealed by God to Muḥammad, also called The Book (Ar. KitÄb) and The Wise Remembrance (Ar. al-Dhikr al-ḥakÄ«m). |
| Quraysh |
Muḥammadâs tribe. They lived in Mecca and were initially his bitter enemies, fighting him in the Battles of Badr, Uḥud, and The Confederates. When Muḥammad conquered Mecca in 8/630, they reluctantly accepted Islam en masse. |
| Qutham ibn al-Ê¿AbbÄs |
(d. 56/676), cousin of Muḥammad and Ê¿AlÄ«, brother of Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Ê¿AbbÄs, served as Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor in charge of Mecca, Medina, and ṬÄʾif. (See further: Ḥ 16:140â141.) |
| Rabadhah |
early Muslim settlement in the foothills of the ḤijÄz mountains, 200 kilometers to the northeast of Medina, now an archaeological site marked by the cistern of AbÅ« SalÄ«m. In early Islamic times it lay on the main pilgrimage route from Kufa to Mecca. |
| al-RabÄ«Ê¿ ibn ZiyÄd al-ḤÄrithÄ« |
(d. ca. 48/668), participated in the Muslim conquest of Khurasan and served as governor of Bahrain during Ê¿Umarâs caliphate, and of Khurasan during MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs. (See further: Ḥ 11:37.) |
| Rabīʿah |
one of the two largest tribal federations in ancient north Arabia (the other is Muá¸ar), named for RabÄ«Ê¿at al-Faras ibn NizÄr ibn MaÊ¿add ibn Ê¿AdnÄn, eponymous ancestor of the tribes of Bakr and Taghlib. RabÄ«Ê¿ah was divided among Ê¿AlÄ« and his opponents during the Battle of the Camel and á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: B 772; Ḥ 13:198.) |
| Raá¸Ä«, SharÄ«f, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥusayn |
(d. 406/1015) descendant of Muḥammad who lived in Abbasid Baghdad, distinguished scholar and poet, compiler of Nahj al-BalÄghah. |
| Ramhormoz (Ar. RÄmahurmuz) |
town in the Khuzistan province of southwestern Iran, conquered by the Muslims in 17/638, reportedly the ancestral homeland of Salman al-FÄrisÄ«. |
| Raqqah |
town in northwest Syria on the Euphrates, conquered by the Muslims in ca. 18/639. In 36/656, Ê¿AlÄ« crossed the Euphrates at Raqqah on his way to á¹¢iffÄ«n. Located close by, the burials of Ê¿AlÄ«âs followers remain venerated places of ShiÊ¿i pilgrimage. |
| rare words |
see gharīb |
| Rass |
lit. well. The âpeople of Rassâ (aṣḥÄb al-Rass) are mentioned in the Qurʾan, alongside Ê¿Äd and ThamÅ«d, as unbelieving peoples of ancient times, destroyed for their impiety (Q FurqÄn 25:38). (See further: Ḥ 10:94â95; B 589; R 2:191; F 303â304.) |
| RÄwandÄ«, Quá¹b al-DÄ«n |
(d. 573/1177), early Twelver ShiÊ¿i commentator on Nahj al-BalÄghah, a jurist, exegete, theologian, and hadith scholar, student of ṬabrisÄ«, author of around 60 books. He died in Qum and is buried there. |
| risÄlah |
letter, treatise, or message. |
| SabÄ |
(rendered into English as Sheba; fl. before 7th c. AD), proverbial pre-Islamic individual from Yemen. In the proverb, âThey dispersed like the hands of SabÄ,â SabÄâs hands are a metaphor for his sons. Warned by a sybil of the Maʾrib damâs imminent rupture, they dispersed across Arabia. (See further: Ḥ 7:74â75; B 403; R 1:432.) |
| Sacred House |
see Kaʿbah |
| SaÊ¿d ibn (Muḥammad) AbÄ« WaqqÄá¹£ |
(d. between 50/670 and 58/677), among the first Muslims, commander of the Arab armies during the conquest of Iraq, and member of the ShÅ«rÄ Council that elected Ê¿UthmÄn. SaÊ¿d was among the handful of prominent Companions who refused to pledge allegiance to Ê¿AlÄ« and sat out his battles. |
| SaÊ¿dÄn |
plant growing in the arid wastes of Arabia, prized for camel pasturing, with a head of prickles that wound human feet. |
| á¹¢afiyyah bint Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib |
(d. ca. 20/640), from the HÄshim clan of Quraysh, paternal aunt of Muḥammad and Ê¿AlÄ«, and mother of al-Zubayr ibn al-Ê¿AwwÄm. á¹¢afiyyah was one of the earliest converts to Islam and migrated with Muḥammad to Medina. |
| á¹¢afwÄn ibn Umayyah al-Jumaḥī |
(d. ca. 41/661), one of the leaders of Quraysh who spearheaded the Battle of the Confederates against Muḥammad. His father, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, was also Muḥammadâs inveterate opponent. á¹¢afwÄn converted to Islam after the Battle of Ḥunayn, in 8/630. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| Sahl ibn Ḥunayf al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. 38/658), of the Medinan Aws tribe, was an early Companion and narrator of hadith. Ê¿AlÄ«âs staunch supporter, Sahl reportedly debated with AbÅ« Bakr about Ê¿AlÄ«âs rightful succession to Muḥammad. During Ê¿AlÄ«âs caliphate, he served as governor in Medina, Basra, and Fars, and he fought in the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. He died in Kufa, soon after returning from á¹¢iffÄ«n. |
| SaÊ¿Ä«d ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£ |
(d. 59/678), from the Umayyad clan of Quraysh, Ê¿UthmÄnâs governor of Kufa 29â34/649â655, and later, MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs governor of Medina. |
| SaÊ¿Ä«d ibn NimrÄn al-HamdÄnÄ« |
(d. ca. 70/689), participated in the battles of YarmÅ«k and QÄdisiyyah during the Muslim conquests. A loyal follower of Ê¿AlÄ«, SaÊ¿Ä«d served as his scribe, and as his governor in Yemen. Later imprisoned by the Umayyad governor ZiyÄd for denouncing the Umayyadsâ cursing of Ê¿AlÄ«, alongside Ê¿AlÄ«âs supporter Ḥujr ibn Ê¿AdÄ«. SaÊ¿Ä«d was released, while Ḥujr was executed. |
| SaÊ¿Ä«d ibn YaḥyÄ al-UmawÄ« |
(d. 249/863), author of MaghÄzÄ« (Expeditions), a recension of the Book of Expeditions composed by his father, AbÅ« AyyÅ«b YaḥyÄ ibn SaÊ¿Ä«d al-UmawÄ« (d. 194/809). His father was a native of Kufa who settled in Baghdad and had studied with Ibn IsḥÄq (d. ca. 151/768), author of one of the earliest Expeditions. |
| Saʿīd ibn Zayd |
(d. 50 or 51/670â671), from Quraysh, cousin and brother-in-law of Ê¿Umar, and one of the earliest Muslims. SaÊ¿Ä«d was among the handful of prominent Medinans who refused to support Ê¿AlÄ« during his caliphate. |
| SalÄmÄn ibn Ṭayy |
clan of the ancient Yemeni tribe of Ṭayy (or Ṭayyiʾ) who migrated in the 2nd century AD to Syria, to what is known as Jabal Ṭayy (later Jabal ShammÄr). |
| á¹¢Äliḥ |
ancient Arabian prophet sent to the tribe of Thamūd. The focus of his story is that God sent him with a camel mare as a divine sign; his tribe killed the camel mare, and God destroyed them in retribution. |
| á¹¢Äliḥ ibn Sulaym |
(d. after 37/658), from the tribe of SalÄmÄn ibn Ṭayy in Kufa, follower of Ê¿AlÄ«, who was ill and unable to accompany him to á¹¢iffÄ«n. |
| SalmÄn al-FÄrisÄ« |
(d. 35/655), prominent early Companion of Muḥammad who came from Persia. Muḥammad said, âSalmÄn is one of us, People of the House.â SalmÄn was also a close companion and staunch supporter of Ê¿AlÄ«. Governor of MadÄʾin in Ê¿Umarâs reign, he died and was buried there. (See further: Ḥ 19:34â39.) |
| Saqīfah (Portico) |
estate in Medina belonging to the SÄÊ¿idah clan, where, immediately after Muḥammadâs death, some of his Companions gathered and pledged allegiance to AbÅ« Bakr as caliph. (See further: B 292â293.) |
| á¹¢aÊ¿á¹£aÊ¿ah ibn ṢūḥÄn al-Ê¿AbdÄ« |
(d. ca. 56/676), poet, orator, and chieftain of his tribe of Ê¿Abd al-Qays, devoted supporter of Ê¿AlÄ« who fought in all his battles and attempted to persuade the Kharijites to return to the fold in the lead-up to the Battle of NahrawÄn. After Ê¿AlÄ«âs death, at MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs court, á¹¢aÊ¿á¹£aÊ¿ah discoursed eloquently on Ê¿AlÄ«âs merits. In some reports, MuÊ¿Äwiyah exiled him to Bahrain, where he died. In other reports, á¹¢aÊ¿á¹£aÊ¿ah paid homage to Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n when the latter returned from Karbala after Ḥusayn was killed. |
| Shariʿah (Ar. sharīʿah) |
lit. wide path to the watering hole, term indicating the Law laid down by each of Godâs six major prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muḥammad. |
| al-SharÄ«f al-Raá¸Ä« |
see Raá¸Ä«. |
| Shaybah ibn Rabīʿah ibn ʿAbd Shams |
(d. 2/624), chieftain of the Ê¿Abd Shams clan of the Meccan Quraysh, slain by Muḥammadâs uncle Ḥamzah in single combat at the Battle of Badr. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| Shiʿa |
lit. followers, shortened from ShÄ«Ê¿at Ê¿AlÄ« (followers of Ê¿AlÄ«), Muslims who believe that Muḥammad appointed Ê¿AlÄ« through divine revelation to lead the Muslim community after him as Imam, and, therefore, that Ê¿AlÄ« was his rightful successor in both his temporal and spiritual roles. Over time, three major branches of the ShiÊ¿a evolved: Twelver, IsmÄÊ¿Ä«lÄ«, and ZaydÄ«. |
| ShibÄm (or ShabÄm) |
clan of the large Yemeni tribe of Hamdan, most of whom fought for Ê¿AlÄ« at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. The clan is unusually named after the mountain that is their ancestral homeland, ShibÄm KawkabÄn, northwest of Sanaa, and not after an eponymous ancestor. |
| ShÅ«rÄ (consultation) |
electoral council set up by Ê¿Umar to choose one of their members as the next caliph. The six members consisted of Ê¿UthmÄn ibn Ê¿AffÄn, who was elected caliph by the council, Ê¿AlÄ« ibn AbÄ« ṬÄlib, who opposed the election, and Ê¿Abd al-RaḥmÄn ibn Ê¿Awf, who presided, as well as al-Zubayr ibn al-Ê¿AwwÄm, SaÊ¿d ibn AbÄ« WaqqÄá¹£, and Ṭalḥah ibn Ê¿UbaydallÄh. |
| Shurayḥ ibn al-ḤÄrith |
(d. ca. 80/699), of Yemeni birth and Persian ethnicity, jurist, hadith scholar, and litterateur, served as judge in Kufa during the caliphates of Ê¿Umar, Ê¿UthmÄn, Ê¿AlÄ«, and MuÊ¿Äwiyah. (See further: Ḥ 14:28â29.) |
| Shurayḥ ibn HÄnÄ« al-ḤÄrithÄ« |
(d. 78/697), Ê¿AlÄ«âs loyal follower and one of his commanders at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n, who lived to an old age. Shurayḥ challenged MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs execution of Ê¿AlÄ«âs follower Ḥujr ibn Ê¿AdÄ«, and was forced to flee to SijistÄn, where he was killed. (See further: Ḥ 17:138.) |
| Ṣiffīn |
site of the major Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n fought between Ê¿AlÄ« and MuÊ¿Äwiyah in 37/657, which ended in arbitration. á¹¢iffÄ«n was then an abandoned Byzantine village near Raqqah, in north-central Syria, on the Euphrates River; it is identified in the present day with the village named AbÅ« Hurayrah. The main extant source for the battle is MinqarÄ«âs Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n (WaqÊ¿at á¹¢iffÄ«n). |
| signature reply (Ar. tawqÄ«Ê¿, pl. tawqÄ«Ê¿Ät) |
signature or seal placed on a decree. |
| Solomon (Ar. SulaymÄn) |
(fl. 10th c. BC), biblical king of Israel, son and successor of King David, revered alongside his father as a prophet in Islam. Solomon is frequently mentioned in the Qurʾan, particularly in connection with his knowledge of the language of the birds, and his command over the jinn and the winds. |
| SufyÄn ibn Ê¿Awf al-GhÄmidÄ« |
(d. ca. 54/674), from the GhÄmid clan of the Azd SarÄt tribe of western Arabia, who fought in the Muslim conquests of Syria and became attached to the Umayyads. SufyÄn served as MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs commander in his conflict with Ê¿AlÄ« and led a notoriously brutal raid against Anbar. Later, he commanded a large Umayyad force against the Byzantines and was killed in the battle. |
| SufyÄnÄ« |
lit. the man from the SufyÄn clan, whose harm is prophesied in §â¯1.136.3. The commentators state that it refers to the Umayyad caliph Ê¿Abd al-Malik. (Ḥ 9:47; B 486.) |
| Suhayl ibn Ê¿Amr ibn Ê¿Abd Shams |
(d. 18/639), of the Umayyad clan of Quraysh, a leader in the Battle of the Confederates in 5/627 against the Muslims, an eloquent orator and one of Muḥammadâs fiercest enemies. Suhayl converted to Islam when Muḥammad conquered Mecca and later participated with the Muslims in the Battle of YarmÅ«k. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| Sulaym ibn Qays al-HilÄlÄ« al-Ê¿ÄmirÄ« |
(d. 76/695), loyal follower of Ê¿AlÄ«, who supported him before his caliphate, and who, during his caliphate, participated in all his battles. Later, Sulaym remained a follower of Ê¿AlÄ«âs sons Ḥasan and Ḥusayn and of Ḥusaynâs son Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n. He is said to be the author of a compilation of Ê¿AlÄ«âs sayings and sayings of the early ShiÊ¿i Imams, known as KitÄb Sulaym (Sulaymâs Book). |
| SulaymÄn ibn Ê¿Abd al-Malik |
(r. 96â99/715â717), Umayyad caliph. |
| Sumayyah (or AsmÄʾ) bint al-AÊ¿war |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), from the Ê¿Abd Shams clan of the Zayd ManÄt tribe of TamÄ«m, slave, mother of the Umayyad governor ZiyÄd. Married to Muḥammad ibn Ê¿AbdallÄh al-AzraqÄ«, Sumayyah is characterized in the sources as promiscuous. Among the stories of ZiyÄdâs parentage, one story recounts that MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs father, AbÅ« SufyÄn, boasted that he, AbÅ« SufyÄn, had âplaced ZiyÄd inside Sumayyahâs womb.â |
| Sunnah, lit. âwell-trodden path to a waterhole,â |
refers to the accepted practice of the pious forbears, and when used without qualifiers, specifically to Muḥammadâs. |
| Sunni, lit. âemulator of the Prophetâs practice,â |
someone belonging to the denomination of Muslims who believe that Muḥammad died without appointing an heir, and who revere the first four leaders of the communityâAbÅ« Bakr, Ê¿Umar, Ê¿UthmÄn, and Ê¿AlÄ«âas Rightly Guided Caliphs. The term Sunni emerged from the earlier political appellation, âpeople adhering to the sunnah and majority.â |
| Surah (Ar. sūrah) |
one of the 114 chapters in the Qurʾan. |
| Syria (Ar. ShÄm) |
the Levant. Syria in early Islam included the present-day nation states of Israel-Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and southeastern Turkey. Then, too, the capital was Damascus. |
| Syrians (Ar. ahl al-ShÄm) |
refers, in the context of Ê¿AlÄ«âs caliphate, to MuÊ¿Äwiyah and his supporters. |
| Ṭalḥah ibn Abī Ṭalḥah al-ʿAbdarī |
(d. 3/624), of the clan of Ê¿Abd al-DÄr of the Quraysh tribe, part of the Meccan opposition against Muḥammad. Ṭalḥah was the Meccansâ standard-bearer during the Battle of Uḥud, where he was slain by Muḥammadâs uncle Ḥamzah, or by Ê¿AlÄ«, and where his two brothers and four sons were also killed. |
| Ṭalḥah ibn Ê¿UbaydallÄh |
(d. 36/656), of the Taym clan of the Meccan Quraysh tribe, Muḥammadâs Companion who later took part in the Muslim conquest of Syria and Egypt and was a member of the ShÅ«rÄ Council that elected Ê¿UthmÄn. Ṭalḥah was killed leading the fight against Ê¿AlÄ« in the Battle of the Camel, outside Basra. |
| Tamīm |
large tribe in central and eastern Arabia. Their pedigree is TamÄ«m ibn Murr ibn Udd ibn ṬÄbikhah ibn IlyÄs ibn Muá¸ar ibn NizÄr ibn MaÊ¿add ibn Ê¿AdnÄn. In the early Islamic period, both Basra and Kufa were extensions of TamÄ«mâs territories. TamÄ«mÄ«s in Basra were further divided into the clans of SaÊ¿d, Ḥanáºalah, and Ê¿Amr; the SaÊ¿d sat out the Battle of the Camel, but they fought for Ê¿AlÄ« at á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: Ḥ 15:126â136.) |
| Ṭaybah |
see Medina |
| Taym |
clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, whose pedigree is Taym ibn Murrah ibn KaÊ¿b ibn Luʾayy ibn GhÄlib ibn Fihr. AbÅ« Bakr and Ṭalḥah were from this clan. |
| ThaÊ¿lab, AbÅ« al-Ê¿AbbÄs Aḥmad ibn YaḥyÄ |
(d. 291/904), leading scholar of the Kufan school of Arabic grammar, cited by Raá¸Ä« in Nahj al-BalÄghah. |
| Thaʿlabiyyah |
caravan stop in Najd, on the Kufa-to-Mecca pilgrimage route, in what is now the northeastern corner of Saudi Arabia toward the Iraqi border. Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī also stopped there en route to Karbala. |
| Thamūd |
ancient Arabian tribe that disappeared before the rise of Islam. They are mentioned in the Qurʾan as an impious people who disobeyed the Prophet á¹¢Äliḥ, slaughtered Godâs camel mare, and were destroyed by an exemplary divine punishment. Legend associates the cliff dwellings around the northern ḤijÄzÄ« town of MadÄʾin á¹¢Äliḥ with the ThamÅ«d. |
| Thaqīf |
north Arabian tribe of the HawÄzin federation who controlled the walled town of ṬÄʾif in pre-Islamic times and were among Muḥammadâs staunchest enemies, until they converted to Islam after their defeat at the Battle of Ḥunayn. The ThaqÄ«f were a major trading partner with Quraysh, and they intermarried extensively. Later the Umayyads appointed several of their governors from ThaqÄ«f. |
| Tigris (Ar. Dijlah) |
along with the Euphrates, one the two great rivers of Iraq. The Tigris flows south from the mountains of the Armenian highlands through the Syrian and Arabian deserts and empties into the Arabian/Persian Gulf. |
| Turks |
refers in the present volume to the Mongols who attacked the Muslim heartlands in the 7th/13th century under Chingiz Khan and his grandson Hülegü Khan. |
| Ê¿Ubaydah ibn al-ḤÄrith ibn Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib |
(d. 2/624), of the HÄshim clan of Quaysh, Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs cousin, one of the earliest converts to Islam, killed fighting for Muḥammad at the Battle of Badr. |
| Ê¿UbaydallÄh ibn al-Ê¿AbbÄs ibn Ê¿Abd al-Muá¹á¹alib |
(d. 58/677), of the HÄshim clan of Quraysh, Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs cousin, and Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor in Yemen. (See further: Ḥ 1:341â343.) |
| Ê¿UbaydallÄh ibn AbÄ« RÄfiÊ¿ |
(d. after 40/661), whose father, AbÅ« RÄfiÊ¿, was one of the first Muslims and Muḥammadâs freedman, was Ê¿AlÄ«âs loyal follower, who participated in all his battles and served as his scribe in Kufa. (See further: B 1003; R 3:391.) |
| Uḥud |
mountain 5 kilometers north of Medina, site of the second major battle between the Muslims and the Meccans, in 3/625, in which the Muslims suffered heavy losses and Muḥammadâs uncle Ḥamzah was killed. |
| ʿUmar ibn Abī Salamah al-Makhzūmī |
(d. 83/702), Muḥammadâs stepson and ward, son of his wife Umm Salamah from her previous husband. Ê¿Umar served as Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor in Bahrain in the lead-up to the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: Ḥ 16:173â174; B 869.) |
| Ê¿Umar ibn al-Khaá¹á¹Äb |
(r. 13â23/634â644), of the Ê¿AdÄ« clan of Quraysh, prominent Companion of Muḥammad and father of his wife Ḥafá¹£ah. Ê¿Umar was the second Sunni caliph of the Muslim community, during whose rule the Muslim polity underwent rapid expansion into Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Iran. |
| Umayyads (Ar. Banū Umayyah) |
clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca and the first dynasty to rule the Islamic world, beginning with MuÊ¿Äwiyah, who became caliph following Ê¿AlÄ«âs death in 40/661. From their seat in Damascus, the Umayyads ruled until 132/750, when they were overthrown by the Abbasids. The third Sunni caliph, Ê¿UthmÄn, was also from this clan. |
| Umayyah ibn Ê¿Abd Shams ibn Ê¿Abd ManÄf |
(d. 2/624), ancestor of the Umayyad clan of Quraysh, a leader of the Meccan opposition against Muḥammad, killed at the Battle of Badr. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| Umm HÄnÄ« (FÄkhitah) bint AbÄ« ṬÄlib |
(d. after 40/661), a learned woman from the HÄshim clan of Quraysh, Ê¿AlÄ«âs sister and Muḥammadâs cousin, and close to both. Umm HÄnÄ« was one of the earliest Muslims, and although her husband Hubayrah was not, Muḥammad spent many nights in Mecca at their home. Muḥammadâs Ascension (Ar. MiÊ¿rÄj) to the heavens is reported to have taken place on one such night. |
| ummī |
epithet used to describe Muḥammad in the Qurʾan (Q AÊ¿rÄf 7:157), variously interpreted as: âMeccan,â an attributive adjective formed from Umm al-QurÄ, one of the names of Mecca; or âunletteredâ; or âof the community (ummah)â; or âaffiliated to previous scriptural communities.â |
| Umm JamÄ«l (ArwÄ) bint Ḥarb |
(fl. 1st/7th c.), MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs paternal aunt, from the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe, married to Muḥammadâs paternal uncle and fierce foe, AbÅ« Lahab. Umm JamÄ«l actively sought to torment Muḥammad while he lived in Mecca, and in the Surah that curses AbÅ« Lahab, she is characterized as âThe Woman-Who-Carries-Firewood-to-Hellâ (Ar. ḥammÄlat al-ḥaá¹ab), (Q Masad 111:1â4). (See further: Ḥ 15:197; B 822; R 3:77; F 374; Ê¿A 681.) |
| Umm al-QurÄ |
see Mecca |
| Ê¿umrah |
the lesser pilgrimage to the Kaʿbah in Mecca, mandated, along with the hajj, once in a lifetime for every Muslim, combining rituals performed by Abraham and Muḥammad. Unlike the hajj, the ʿumrah may be performed at any time in the year. |
| UsÄmah ibn Zayd |
(d. ca. 54/674), son of Muḥammadâs Abyssinian freedwoman Barakah Umm Ayman and Muḥammadâs adopted son Zayd ibn al-ḤÄrithah, born in Mecca in the early years of Islam. In 11/632, Muḥammad put UsÄmah in command of an expedition to fight the Byzantines at Muʾtah, but the group turned back just before Muḥammad died. Later, UsÄmah was among the handful of prominent Companions who refused to pledge allegiance to Ê¿AlÄ« and sat out his battles. |
| ʿUtbah ibn Rabīʿah ibn ʿAbd Shams |
(d. 2/624), of the Quraysh tribe, a leader of the Meccan opposition against Muḥammad, killed at the Battle of Badr. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| Ê¿UthmÄn ibn Ê¿AffÄn |
(r. 23â35/644â656), of the Umayyad clan of Quraysh, third Sunni caliph of the Muslim community. Ê¿UthmÄn married two of Muḥammadâs daughters in succession, Ruqayyah and Umm KulthÅ«m. Major Muslim conquests in Central Asia took place during his reign. Later, he was accused of nepotism and corruption and killed in Medina by a group of Muslims. |
| Ê¿UthmÄn ibn Ḥunayf al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. after 40/661), of the Aws tribe of Medina, Companion of Muḥammad who served as Ê¿Umarâs tax collector in Iraq and Ê¿AlÄ«âs first governor in Basra. After the Battle of the Camel, Ê¿AlÄ« replaced Ibn Ḥunayf with Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Ê¿AbbÄs as governor of Basra, and Ibn Ḥunayf left with Ê¿AlÄ« for Kufa, where he settled. (See further: Ḥ 16:205â206.) |
| Ê¿UthmÄn ibn MaáºÊ¿Å«n |
(d. 3/624), of the Jumaḥ clan of Quraysh, one of Muḥammadâs earliest Companions, who took part in the first Muslim migration to Abyssinia, returned soon thereafter, then migrated with Muḥammad to Medina. |
| al-Walīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malik |
(r. 86â96/715â705), Umayyad caliph. |
| al-Walīd ibn al-Mughīrah |
(d. 2/624), of the MakhzÅ«m clan of Quraysh, persecutor of Muḥammadâs followers in Mecca and a leader of the Meccan opposition against the Muslims at Medina, killed fighting against Muḥammad at the Battle of Badr. (See further: B 776; Ḥ 13:214; F 365.) |
| al-Walīd ibn ʿUqbah ibn Abī MuʿīṠ|
(d. 61/680), of the Umayyad clan of Meccaâs Quraysh tribe, whose father, Ê¿Uqbah, was killed fighting against Muḥammad at Badr. WalÄ«d converted to Islam after the conquest of Mecca, in 8/630. He was half-brother to Ê¿UthmÄn, who appointed him governor of Kufa, then removed him from office because of his wine-drinking. Later, WalÄ«d supported MuÊ¿Äwiyah and fought against Ê¿AlÄ«. (See further: Ḥ 17:227â245.) |
| al-Walīd ibn ʿUtbah ibn Rabīʿah |
(d. 2/624), chieftain of the Ê¿Abd Shams clan of Quraysh, MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs maternal grandfather, slain by Ê¿AlÄ« in single combat at the Battle of Badr. (See further: B 792; R 3:31; F 369; Ḥ 4:34.) |
| WÄqidÄ« |
(d. 207/822), preeminent historian from Medina, also jurist and judge, who settled in Baghdad. WÄqidÄ« authored many books, and only a portion of one book, KitÄb al-MaghÄzÄ« (Expeditions), is extant. Names of his lost works, including KitÄb al-Jamal (The Battle of the Camel), and copious quotations from them survive in the historical literature. |
| waá¹£iyyah |
testament, including but not limited to a deathbed testament, containing moral advice and/or instructions for distribution of property. |
| Wise Remembrance |
see Qurʾan |
| wrongdoers (Ar. qÄsiá¹Å«n) |
appellation applied to MuÊ¿Äwiyah and the Syrians who fought Ê¿AlÄ« at the Battle of á¹¢iffÄ«n. (See further: Ḥ 13:183â184; B 771â772; F 364â365.) |
| YamÄmah |
early Islamic town in the Najd region of Arabia near Kharj, 70 kilometers southeast of the present-day Saudi Arabian capital of Riyadh. |
| al-YamÄnÄ« |
lit. the Yemeni, the otherwise unidentified individual who narrated oration §â¯1.231 from one Aḥmad ibn Qutaybah, identified by some commentators as the equally mysterious DhiÊ¿lib al-YamÄnÄ«, one of Ê¿AlÄ«âs interlocutors in the present volume. |
| Yanbuʿ al-Nakhl |
oasis with wellsprings and date groves, 120 kilometers east of Medina (different from the coastal town of YanbuÊ¿ or Yenbo, formerly called YanbuÊ¿ al-Baḥr). In pre-Islamic times, YanbuÊ¿ al-Nakhl was a worship center for a deity called SuwÄÊ¿. Muḥammad conquered YanbuÊ¿ al-Nakhl and reportedly built a mosque there. Ê¿AlÄ« owned an estate there. (See further: Ḥ 13:296.) |
| Yazīd (II) ibn ʿAbd al-Malik |
(r. 101â105/720â724), Umayyad caliph. |
| YazÄ«d ibn AbÄ« SufyÄn |
(d. 18/639), from the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe, and MuÊ¿Äwiyahâs brother. YazÄ«d was one of the Meccans who fought against Muḥammad, and after the conquest of Mecca in 8/630 converted to Islam. Afterward, he fought in the Muslim army under Ê¿Amr ibn al-Ê¿Äá¹£ against the Byzantines. When Ê¿Amr left for Egypt, he appointed YazÄ«d in charge of Syria, where he died in the Plague of Emmaus. (See further: Ḥ 17:256â257.) |
| Yemen |
well-known region in the southwest of the Arabian Peninsula. Muḥammad sent ʿAlī to Yemen in 10/632 to call its people to Islam. Yemen and Yemenis feature in several texts in the present volume. |
| Zanj |
black slaves from East Africa brought into early Abbasid Iraq in large numbers to work in the saltpeter mines near Basra. The Zanj rebelled three times within a space of two centuries, including a violent, lengthy rebellion under Ê¿AlÄ« ibn Muḥammad al-ZanjÄ«, which ravaged Basra from 255/869 to 270/883, causing immeasurable material damage and killing tens of thousands of people. (See further: Ḥ 8:126â214.) |
| Zayd ibn ThÄbit al-Aná¹£ÄrÄ« |
(d. ca. 55/674), of the Khazraj tribe of Medina, one of Muḥammadâs Companions, who served as his scribe and recorded passages of the Qurʾan. |
| Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n |
see Ê¿AlÄ« ibn al-Ḥusayn al-SajjÄd Zayn al-Ê¿ÄbidÄ«n. |
| Zaynab bint Jaḥsh al-Asadiyyah |
(d. 20/641), Muḥammadâs wife, whom he married in 4/626, after her divorce from his freedman and adopted son Zayd ibn ḤÄrithah (Q AḥzÄb 33:37). (See further: Ḥ 9:242.) |
| ZiyÄd ibn AbÄ«hi |
(d. 53/673), also known as ZiyÄd ibn AbÄ« SufyÄn, deputy for Ê¿AlÄ«âs governor Ê¿AbdallÄh ibn al-Ê¿AbbÄs in Basra. Born out of wedlock to a slave named Sumayyah, ZiyÄd was later declared his half-brother by MuÊ¿Äwiyah and made governor of Iraq. (See further: Ḥ 16:179â204.) |
| ZiyÄd ibn al-Naá¸r al-ḤÄrithÄ« |
(d. after 37/658), of the Madhḥij tribe, fought for Ê¿AlÄ« as a subcommander under his tribesman MÄlik al-Ashtar at á¹¢iffÄ«n and NahrawÄn. |
| al-Zubayr ibn al-Ê¿AwwÄm |
(d. 35/656), of the Quraysh, son of Muḥammadâs and Ê¿AlÄ«âs paternal aunt á¹¢afiyyah, one of the earliest Muslims, later a member of the ShÅ«rÄ Council that elected Ê¿UthmÄn. Zubayr was one of the leaders at the Battle of the Camel against Ê¿AlÄ«. He left the battlefield after the fighting began but was killed by a personal enemy as he was leaving. |
Footnotes
This information has been culled from multiple sources, including EI2, EI3, EIr, Ê¿Abd al-ZahrÄʾâs Maá¹£Ädir Nahj al-balÄghah, medieval biographical dictionaries, and a variety of online sources. Some Nahj al-BalÄghah commentators, especially Ibn AbÄ« al-ḤadÄ«d, BaḥrÄnÄ«, and RÄwandÄ«, and also Ibn Funduq and Mughniyyah, offer detailed biographies and event narratives, and their commentaries are referenced in parentheses.