Index
address, forms of
1–3, 8, 215–18, 220–34, 260–64, 267, 274–79, 286, 287–90, 301
adjectives
.
see grammatical categories
adverbs
.
see grammatical categories
Africa and Africans
10, 23, 88, 274–75, 279.
Spanish, Afro-Bolivian, and enslaved people
age
.
see sociolinguistic variables
allophonic variation
6, 17–22, 33, 34, 36, 62, 73, 76– 78, 81–91, 94, 97, 105–10, 112, 114–16
Andalucía
123.
Spanish
anterior aspect
8, 238–42, 244–46, 251, 253–54, 256
Antigua
18, 41, 44, 47, 309
approximants
17–20, 22, 44–46, 48–49, 50–55, 56, 60–61, 63–65
Areal Norms Theory
260
Argentina
122, 131, 137, 154–55, 161, 175, 182, 184, 186, 248, 298.
Spanish, Argentinian
aspiration
74–76, 78, 81, 87–90, 314
Assamese
17
Asturian
99–100
attitudes
2, 26–27, 47, 148, 232
Basque
41, 239
Belize
1–4, 10, 17–18, 21–27, 34, 308–9, 312, 314–15.
Spanish, Belizean
bilinguals and bilingualism
2–4, 6, 10, 41–48, 57, 60–67, 99, 145–51, 153–55, 157–60, 162–64, 198, 211, 290
biological sex
.
see sociolinguistic variables
Bolivia
123, 309.
Spanish, Afro-Bolivian
Brazilian Portuguese
197, 199, 209
British settlers
23
Caribbean
1, 3, 10–11, 17, 194, 210, 218, 275, 308–10.
Spanish, Caribbean
Chile
122, 131, 182, 184, 186, 277.
Spanish, Chilean
chronological classification
308
code-switching
3
colonial period
8–9, 215–18, 220, 262, 264–66, 268–71, 274–76, 278–79, 309–10, 312
contact between languages
1–3, 6–7, 9–10, 17–18, 21, 25, 33–34, 36, 41–45, 63, 65, 67, 72, 74, 99–100, 104, 111, 145–150, 153–56, 159–63, 189, 194–95, 198, 210–12, 260, 279, 284, 290, 292, 310, 312, 314–15
corpus linguistics
4, 7, 23, 41, 47, 126, 131, 148–49, 150–51, 153, 156, 160, 163, 168, 170, 174, 179, 180–82, 187–89, 240–43, 253, 262, 267, 271, 313
Costa Rica
1–10, 95, 112, 121–23, 129, 169–70, 182–88, 215–17, 224, 235, 238, 242, 245, 248, 251, 253–56, 267, 273, 309, 311, 313, 315.
Spanish, Costa Rican
Creoles
1, 3, 10–11, 23, 34, 279, 308, 312
Afro-Panamanian Congo language
309
Belizean Kriol
2–3, 10, 23, 27, 45
English-based
1, 3, 10, 23, 34
Miskito Coast Creole
10
Palenquero Creole
275
Panamanian Creole
10
Rama Cay Creole
10
Cuba
18
debuccalization
.
see sound change
deferentiality
215–17, 224, 231, 234
deixis
8, 154, 234, 315
deletion
.
see sound change
determiners
.
see grammatical categories
dialects and dialectology
1–4, 9, 17–25, 30, 34–36, 44, 61–62, 72–77, 94–96, 98–99, 110–11, 121, 123–24, 142, 162, 168–69, 170–71, 177, 179, 180–83, 187–89, 239, 240, 243–44, 249, 256, 261–62, 267–77, 292, 308–15
Dominican Republic
131–32, 170, 193.
Spanish, Dominican
Ecuador
18–19, 95, 98–99, 112, 248, 288–89, 293, 297–98.
Spanish, Ecuadorian education
.
see sociolinguistic variables
El Salvador
1–4, 72, 74–75, 91, 94–95, 100, 104, 110–14, 169–70, 172–73, 177–78, 182–84, 186, 188, 241, 248, 256, 310, 313.
Spanish, Salvadoran
elision
.
see sound change
English
1–3, 10–11, 21, 23–24, 27, 34, 36, 45–46, 61, 96–97, 99, 114, 171, 196, 245, 302, 308, 312
enslaved people
23, 72, 275, 277
ergativity
160, 171, 175
ethnicity as sociolinguistic variable
63, 145, 149, 274–76, 285–86, 302, 310, 314
face
7, 9, 218–34, 301
threatening
7, 9, 219–20, 227–28, 303
flaps
21, 33
Florida
3, 240
fricatives
20, 45–46, 62, 73–74, 76, 310
Galician
57
gay speech
.
see sociolinguistic variables
gender
.
see sociolinguistic variables and grammatical gender
gestural undershoot
94–96
globalization
111
glottal abduction
.
see sound change
grammatical categories
adjectives
169, 175, 182–83
adverbs
8, 240, 243, 245–46, 249–50, 253, 255
determiners
183
nouns
183, 194–95, 197, 199, 200, 202, 205, 209, 215–217, 222, 224
prepositions
6, 146, 159–64, 169, 171, 173–74, 176–79, 182–83, 185, 186–89, 268, 269
pronouns
6–8, 146, 149–52, 154–61, 195, 199–200, 202, 205, 210, 215–18, 221–28, 230–34, 249, 276, 262–67, 271, 275, 277, 279, 292, 295, 297, 299, 314
verbs
3, 6, 7, 10, 74, 100, 146–47, 154, 156, 159, 160–63, 169–71, 174–77, 179, 181–83, 187–89, 193–99, 204–5, 209–11, 216, 219, 222, 225–26, 229–30, 234, 239, 240, 243–44, 247, 254, 264, 265, 267–68, 269, 272
grammatical gender
147, 150–54, 156, 160–61
grammaticalization
7–8, 146–47, 163, 169–70, 176, 179, 186, 224, 232, 235, 239, 240–41, 242–43, 247, 250, 254, 256, 265
grammatical number
object
243–44, 249, 250, 253, 255, 265
subject
7, 147, 150–56, 160, 161, 193–99, 202–12
Guatemala
1–4, 9–10, 18, 41, 43–44, 47, 60, 63, 66–67, 72, 74–75, 145, 149, 159, 164, 171, 182–84, 186, 264, 309–13.
Spanish, Guatemalan
habituality
183
heteronormativity
.
see sociolinguistic variables, sexuality
historical linguistics
4
Honduras
1, 3, 4, 9, 72–73, 75–76, 86, 169–170, 172–173, 176, 182–86, 188, 308–13.
Spanish, Honduran
hypoarticulation
97
indigenous languages
Achi
145
Akateko
145
Awakateko
145
Bribrí
310
Cabécar
310
Ch’orti’
145
Chalchiteko
145
Chuj
145
Garifuna
145
Guaraní
147, 310
Itza’
145
Ixil
145
Jakalteko/Popti’
145
Jicaque
310
K’iche’
18, 145
Kaqchikel
2–5, 41–42, 44–45, 47, 57, 60–66, 145
Lenca
310
Mam
145
Miskitu
3, 194–95, 198, 200, 203, 226, 212, 290
Mopan
145
Náhuatl
310
Ocotepeque
75, 77
Otomi
147
Paya
310
Pipil
310
Poqomam
145
Poqomchi’
145
Q’anjob’al
145
Q’eqchi’
145
Quechua
41, 147, 241, 310
Sakapulteko
145
Sipakapense
145
Shipibo-Konibo
44, 46, 61
Sumo
210
Tektiteko
145
Tepehuano
147
Tz’utujil
3, 6, 145–50, 154, 159, 160–64
Ulwa
3
Uspanteko
145
Xinka
145
indigenous substrates
72
intentionality
220–21
Internal Linguistic Diffusion
261
intervocalic position
4, 17, 19, 20, 22–23, 25–26, 28–29, 32–33, 35, 36, 44–46, 48, 94, 98–99, 112
intonation
6, 121–25, 142, 146, 290
lenition
.
see sound change
lexical change
174, 177, 180–81, 186, 188–89
Mestizos
23, 145, 290
Mexico
9, 10, 17, 22–24, 122, 137, 146, 169, 182, 184, 186, 240, 241, 248, 255–56, 288–89, 294, 298, 308–10, 315
migration
10, 23, 73, 111, 148, 264, 314–15
minimal pairs
5, 17, 22, 42, 44, 53–54, 56, 64, 66
monolinguals
1–2, 6, 11, 27, 44, 46–47, 60–63, 146, 148–51, 153, 155, 157–58, 160, 163, 194
morphology
23, 179, 193–99, 209, 285
multinomial logistic regression model
81
Munda
17
nasals
35, 198–99
nasalization
197
New Mexico
10, 308
Nicaragua
1–4, 7–8, 10, 72, 74, 168–70, 176, 182–86, 188, 194, 198, 201, 210, 286, 290–91, 310, 311.
Spanish, Nicaraguan
nouns
.
see grammatical categories
number
.
see grammatical number
Panama
1–4, 8–9, 18, 62, 182–84, 186, 262–64, 266–67, 269, 271, 274–79, 308, 312
pan-Hispanic linguistic norms
63
perceptions
5, 33, 41, 64–66, 97–99, 114, 117, 124–25, 161
perfective aspect
8, 241, 253–54, 256
phatic utterances
287–89, 291–92, 296, 302
phonemic tap
45–49, 53–54, 56–61, 63–66
phonemic trill
44–46, 53–57, 62, 64–66
phonetic inventories
62, 66
phonic salience
7, 196–97, 199, 202–9, 211
pirates
72
pitch accents
122, 125, 127, 129, 130–135, 138–42
polarity
183, 185, 188
politeness
9, 97, 208, 218, 221, 284, 286, 288, 296, 298, 300
Praat
48, 101, 126
pragmatic exploitation
226–27, 234
pragmatic strengthening
224, 247
Pragmaticalization
8, 222, 228, 232, 234
pragmatics
4, 232, 284–87, 313
prepositions
.
see grammatical categories
pronouns
.
see grammatical categories
prosody
121, 164
refugees
314–15
retroflex consonants
4, 18, 20–23, 26–34, 36, 46
rhoticism
4–5, 17–23, 25–29, 30–36, 41–42, 44–49, 52–56, 60–67
Rimland
11
ruralness
.
see sociolinguistic variables
semantic change
178, 221–32
semantics
2, 314
social class
.
see sociolinguistic variables
sociolinguistics
88, 112, 114, 208, 211, 286
sociolinguistic variables
age
4, 6, 7, 21, 25–28, 30–34, 42, 62, 64, 53–54, 57–58, 60, 63, 65–66, 73, 77–80, 82–84, 86–88, 90–91, 101–9, 111, 113, 123, 130, 131, 135, 139, 142, 182, 198–99, 201–3, 207–9, 211, 242, 285–86, 292
biological sex
6–7, 27–28, 30–31, 33, 48, 53, 57–60, 73, 77–79, 80, 82–84, 87–88, 91, 106, 114, 125, 129, 130, 133–34, 138–39, 142
education
63, 73, 77–80, 82, 85–91, 98, 104, 106, 111, 113, 123, 141, 145, 148–49, 162, 194, 197, 199, 201–3, 208–11, 291
ethnicity
63, 145, 149, 274–76, 285–86, 302, 310, 314
gender
96, 98–99, 101, 105–9, 112–13, 133, 151–56, 160–61, 163, 197, 199, 201–3, 207–9, 211, 242, 285–86, 288–89, 292–93, 295, 298, 303
ruralness as a sociolinguistic variable
8, 9, 95, 99–102, 105, 114, 197, 269–70, 275, 278, 290–91, 298, 303, 313
sexuality
96, 98, 102, 114
social class
73, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84–85, 87–89, 91, 104, 271, 279, 285–86
urbanicity as a social variable
99, 100–101, 113
sociophonetics
4, 5, 97, 99, 114, 133
sound change
debuccalization
94, 98
deletion
5, 74–76, 78, 81, 84, 87–90, 94, 98, 110, 195–96, 212
elision
19, 310
glottal abduction
63, 95, 110, 112
lenition
21, 53, 94, 112
Spain
17, 41, 74, 122, 169, 171, 178, 182, 184, 186, 222, 240, 248, 254, 255, 263, 264, 266, 277, 279, 289, 293, 297, 298, 309.
Spanish, Peninsular
Spanish
Afro-Bolivian
193, 196
Andean
142, 218, 241
Argentinian River Plate
240
Belizean
4, 18, 21, 22–25, 27, 32–34, 36, 46
Caribbean
44, 132, 142, 195, 196, 314
Colombian
6, 95, 121, 122, 131, 142
Costa Rican
1–3, 6–9, 34, 36, 96, 98–99, 104, 112, 121–26, 132, 135, 139, 140–42, 215–18, 222, 231, 239, 241–49, 250–51, 253–56, 290, 309, 313
Costa Rican Central Valley
18, 20, 32
Costa Rican colonial
215, 217, 220
Extremadura
123
Guatemalan
5, 6, 9, 10, 47, 62, 67, 74, 76, 309, 312, 315
Honduran
2, 5, 7, 72–76, 78–79, 88, 91, 313, 314
Mexican
3, 7, 8, 10, 19, 27, 33, 62, 98, 240, 253–56, 288, 293, 296, 314
Mosquito Coast
7, 193
Nicaraguan
2, 3, 7, 72, 74, 87, 194, 210–12, 284–85, 290, 303, 312, 314
Panamanian
2, 3, 8, 62, 276, 262, 267, 269, 270, 273, 277–78, 313
Peninsular
7, 62, 147, 161, 241–42, 247, 251–55, 266
Peruvian
241
Puerto Rican
98
Taos New Mexican
21, 34
United States
196
Venezuelan
132, 142
Veracruz Mexican
45
Yucatan
18, 22, 34, 37, 63, 308
spectrographic analysis
19
speech acts
7, 9, 222–23, 226–27, 284–85, 287, 291, 314
Stammbaumtheorie
260
standardization
111
stress
53–54, 123, 125–27, 129, 137, 140, 146–47, 150, 160–61, 163, 220, 269
subjectification
222, 234
tense
8, 183, 229, 243, 245, 247, 250–51, 255
Temne
33
transitivity
160, 183–85, 188
United States
10, 46, 75, 104, 154, 170, 184, 186, 196, 313–15
urbanicity
.
see sociolinguistic variables
urbanization
111
variational pragmatics
285, 286–87
variationist method
25, 242
Venezuela
18, 122, 137, 154–55, 161, 218
verbs
.
see grammatical categories
Viceroyalty of New Spain
309
voseo americano
216, 231
Yucatec Caste War
24