Notations
Mathematical angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ are used for glosses in text, e.g. Turkish at-lar ⟨horse-PL⟩ ‘horses’.
Curly brackets of the type {…} are used for morphophonemic formulas that summarize the possible realizations of bound morphemes, e.g. Turkish {-CI}. Optional elements are in brackets, e.g. Turkish {-(y)Im}. Capital letters in the formula mark morphophonemic variation.
Hyphens are often used to show the segmentation of complex forms, indicating the boundaries between constituent segments, usually, but not always, morphemes, e.g. Chuvash Vul-ă-p ‘I will read’.
Simple arrows are used for morphological derivation. Thus ← means ‘derived from’, whereas → means ‘derived as’.
Double arrows are used for copied (borrowed) elements. Thus ⟸ means ‘copied from’, whereas ⟹ means ‘copied as’.
The sign < means ‘developed from’, whereas > means ‘developed into’.
In translations, X is used as a shorthand for the 3SG personal pronouns ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’, ‘him’, ‘her’, e.g. Persian Raft-e ast ‘X has gone’.