Index
accommodation (between Christian doctrine and native religiosity)
1, 35, 282, 292, 320
civil customs and religious rites; conversion; evangelization; hybrid Christianity; tolerance of indigenous customs
Acosta, José de
17, 19, 93n8
description of three evangelization methods
20
on distinction between civil and religious customs
80n133, 311
on idolatry
8, 35, 57, 59–60
on Jesuit language policy
237–39, 242, 252
on military entradas
92–93
on satanic parodies
60, 79, 311
on the catechism
323
use of demonization
59, 78
Acquaviva, Claudio
140, 236
Acuña, Cristóbal de
25, 27n57, 31–32, 52n154, 181
afterlife, natives beliefs about
85, 274
heaven; hell
Aguanos
42, 128n137
Aguarico River
26n52, 113, 230, 301
Aizuares
180, 189, 198
Alcedo y Herrera, Dionisio de
144
alguaciles
209–10, 218
as fiscales de doctrina
209
Altamirano, Diego Francisco
171, 173, 186
Alvarado, Eugenio de
99n29
amancebamiento
232, 277, 306–7
Amazon River
26n52, 74, 95, 195
descriptions of the native peoples of
27, 52n154, 155n86
expeditions along
25–26, 30, 47n134, 187, 202
jurisdiction of religious orders along
2, 127, 182, 190
linguistic diversity of societies along
240
maps of
118–19, 160–61, 186
Amazonian landscape, descriptions of
21n39, 23, 36–38, 40, 127, 130, 139, 142
Andoas
121
caciques of
109, 133
participation in military entradas of
107, 134
pueblo of
87, 145, 171, 263, 298
Andrade, Antonio de
180, 201
anthropophagy
22, 30n71, 50, 109, 312
as justification for war and enslavement
22, 42–43, 100
as sign of barbarism
26
Cynocephalus
30–31n71
descriptions of
27, 32–33, 42, 44, 75, 315
Carib
apparitions
72–73, 304
Aquinas, Thomas
14n6, 19n28, 270
Arawak language family
30–31n71, 244–45, 255
Archidona
51, 109n70, 124, 146, 152–53
Aristotle
14, 18, 270–71
Artieda, Andrés de
167
Asunción (Paraguay)
212, 238
Audiencia of Quito
13, 25, 32, 36, 40, 48, 51, 53, 142, 144, 153, 165, 170
Augustine of Hippo
18, 19n28, 63, 86n158
Augustinians
199, 239
autonomous native groups
3, 50, 114, 117, 123, 130, 132
Avijiras
36n94, 37, 40, 41n113, 115, 309
Ávila
51, 139, 146
Aymara language
2, 66, 237, 239, 271
Aztecs
19–20, 57n8, 58n10, 235, 239, 281n7
Bacas, Alonso
28, 48
Baeza
51, 52n154, 139
Bahamonde, José
131, 261
bandeiras
101, 148, 155
baptism
206
and exorcism
77
figures in Maynas missions
122–23
indigenous resistance to
303
native practices similar to
81
natives beliefs about
302–3
Tridentine guidelines for
302
Barace, Cipriano
117, 156–57, 159
barbarians
characteristics of
22, 24
characterization of indigenous people as
13, 16, 20, 28, 91, 162
in Amazonia
15, 117
in antiquity
13
in medieval Europe
14n6
linguistic criteria for defining
270
barbarism
absence of political authority as sign of
16, 28–30, 37
as justification for encomiendas
43, 50, 54
as justification for reductions
54
Barbudos
108–9, 115
bark clove
191–92
baroque religiosity
117, 214, 282, 292–93
Baure language
6, 238, 245, 256, 279
Bautista Julián, Juan
110
on church architecture in Maynas
295
on confession
304
on Jesuit language policy
217, 260
on missionary entradas
108, 129
on native languages in Maynas
241, 252
on Portuguese–Spanish rivalry
150, 200
Bautista Sanna, Juan
180, 187, 190, 192, 198, 200–1
Belém (Pará)
141, 184–86, 193, 197
Benalcázar, Sebastián de
46n132
Benavente (Motolinía), Toribio de
61, 80n135, 222
Bertonio, Ludovico
66–67, 237, 271
Betoyes
227
biblical references
Book of Ezekiel
63n43
Book of Genesis
60
Book of Isaiah
63n43
Book of Job
69n70
Book of Job (Septuagint)
63n43
Book of Wisdom
35
First Book of Kings
267
Gospel of Luke
29n64
Second Book of Samuel
297
Biedma, Manuel
315
bilingualism
236, 239, 258, 260–61, 276, 279, 321
language policy; lengua general; linguistic homogenization
Blacks
50, 57, 70n75, 79, 80n135, 191, 209, 260n110, 283
Blende, Bartolomé
155n86
Blessed Sacrament
290, 297–98, 301
Board of Missions
190–92, 194–95, 197
body modification
27n58, 313–14
body painting
303, 314
Bogotá
46n132
Bolivia
1, 120, 170, 221, 255, 279
Borja, San Francisco de
141, 288
and the viability of Maynas reductions
147, 151, 164
bilingualism in
260
encomienda in
42, 139
foundation of
2, 24
governance of
143
indigenous auxiliaries in
210, 219
natives in
75, 77, 129
Spaniards of
39, 54, 100, 107, 131
borracheras
and caciques power
312
missionaries efforts to eliminate
208, 224, 232, 305, 311, 316
practice of
125, 286, 298, 307, 313, 322
Branco River
188, 196
Brentano, Carlos
131, 203, 258, 291, 307
Breyer, Wenceslao
127, 168, 295, 298
Buenos Aires
142, 148
Burges, Francisco
148n57
burial. see funerary practices
Caballero, Lucas
155n86, 300
Cabo Norte
182, 186
cacao
collection of
190–92, 196, 200–2
export of
6, 104, 139, 168–69, 171
caciques
participation in missionary entradas
108
political authority of
16–17, 24, 29, 37, 41, 217
prestige of
29, 128, 298, 302, 308–10, 312
responsibilities of
9, 97, 109, 206, 209, 290
Cahuachis
132, 134
Cahuapanan language family
244
Cahuapanas
107, 117n112, 133
Camacho, Andrés
107, 129
Canelos
117n112, 199
Canichana language
238, 245, 256, 279, 310
cannibalism. see anthropophagy; Carib
capitulation
39, 43, 48–49
see memoriales
captives in indigenous societies
32–33, 42, 95, 132
Cárdenas, Bernardino de
266, 267n142
Carib (as synonym for anthropophagous)
16, 21, 30–33, 44, 50
anthropophagy
Carmelite missions
and native slaves
180, 190, 195, 203
foundation of
187–89
overhaul of
202
Carmelites
189
ransoming troops
and Portuguese–Spanish territorial disputes
183–84, 186, 189, 200
arrival in Amazonia
182
collaboration with ransoming troops
201
evangelization strategies of
201
origins of
182n6
relations with Portuguese
182, 193, 196–98, 205
relations with Spanish Jesuits
189–90, 192, 200–1
Cartagena
163, 169
casa de recogimiento
225–26
Casado, José
225, 232
cascarilla
104, 168, 171
catechesis
and indigenous auxiliaries
208, 210, 290
for adults
289
for children
289–90
catechisms
237, 260, 262–64, 267–68
and education of children
289
and native superstitions
58
Council of the Indies on
269
in Amazonia and in New Spain
278
in native languages
237, 269, 273
indigenous responses to
268–69
on the notion of soul
268
production of
235, 247, 250, 258, 262–63, 279, 321
cattle raising
44
in Chiquitos
6, 145, 221
in Maynas
130, 145, 319
in Mojos
6, 145, 221
in Paraguay
141n12, 145
Caumaris
128, 130–32, 134, 241, 246n58, 261, 272
Cavachis
107n61, 246n58
Cavero, Hernando
100–1, 121, 153–54, 174, 255, 257
Cedeño, Sebastián
37, 109n70
Chaco
29n64, 88n166, 106n59, 148, 153, 240, 250, 266
Chamicuros
62, 73, 115, 117n112, 132
Chantre y Herrera, José
108, 290, 297
Chayavita dialect
244
Chayavitas
107, 117n112
Chichimecas
16
children
as captives
133, 194, 197
as missionaries auxiliaries
112, 219, 221–23, 290
education of
206, 208, 219, 235, 263, 289–90
in indigenous societies
37, 223
Chile
154, 173, 238
China
20, 156, 198
Chipeos
75, 98n26, 131, 246n58
Chiquitano language
6, 238, 245, 255, 279
Chiquitos missions
6, 155n86
administration of
97n23
Christian identity in
214, 297, 300
cultural change in
6, 227–28, 307
funding sources for
138, 148n57, 149, 163
language policies and diversity
6, 238, 244, 255
material conditions in
117n110, 171n144, 221
missionary entradas in
91, 148
responsibilities of missionaries in
120, 175
Chiriguanos
16, 266
Chomé, Ignacio
242, 271
church architecture
in Carmelite missions
202
in Maynas
294–95
Cicero
14
Cieza de León, Pedro de
64, 75
cimarrones
42, 54, 133, 230, 288
cinnamon
47n134, 147, 171
civil customs and religious rites
267, 280, 311–12, 316–17, 320
accommodation; tolerance of indigenous customs
civilized
18
clothing as sign of civilization
25–27, 36, 40–41
Cocamas
2, 25, 44, 50, 246n58
baptism of
131
descriptions of anthropophagy among
33
enslavement of
42
foundation of missions among
2
marriage practices of
308
participation in missionary entradas
38
practice of indigenous slavery among
111, 203
punitive expeditions against
42, 98n26, 159n94
rebellion of
75, 158–59, 301
royal license for conquest of
24, 43
Cofanes
36n94, 117n111, 230n110
College of Quito (Jesuit)
3, 156, 158, 257
and mission finance
137, 151, 164, 166
and shortage of missionaries in Maynas
120, 139–40, 175, 177
colonial classifications
16n13
colonization
as extirpation of demons
63
of the imaginary
9
Columbus
30–31n71, 39n107
compelle eos intrare
20, 29n64, 93
competitive sociability
and confraternities
215
and missionary entradas
114, 320
as conversion strategy
120, 214, 216, 232, 308
in Maynas
216, 261
Concepción de Baures
256
Concepción de Chiquitos
215, 228
Concepción de los Jeberos, Limpia
107, 122, 124, 126, 130, 145, 287, 295
confession
and cultural change
305, 307
and exorcism
77
native rituals similar to
80, 311
natives beliefs about
302, 304, 306–7
policing of natives sexual practices via
305–6
role of interpreters in
252
Tridentine guidelines for
304–5
confessionals
237, 262, 267, 305–6, 315
confirmation
308
confraternities
1, 4, 206
among the Guarani
212–13, 215
and cultural change
212, 214, 216
and missionary entradas
213
in Chiquitos
213, 215
in Mojos
212–13
in Peru
214
legislation on
212
natives motivations for joining
213–16
prestige of
215
responsibilities of
212–13
conversion
9, 317
and making natives crown subjects
186
and translation
257
as intercultural dialogue
321
meaning of
280–81, 322
scholarship on
280–82
accommodation; civil customs and religious rites; competitive sociability; evangelization; hybrid Christianity; tolerance of indigenous customs
copaiba oil
168, 286
Coronados
33n81, 112
Corpus Christi
293, 295, 298
cosmic battle between good and evil
7, 56, 61–63, 76, 89, 240, 286, 304
Council of the Indies
137n1
decisions of
29n64, 105n57, 143n26, 152, 164, 166, 170, 172, 174, 177–79, 184, 212, 269
on military entradas
45
petitions to
21, 25, 36, 42, 46, 49, 137, 140, 148, 163, 165, 172–73, 178
views of Amazonia
139, 141, 143, 150, 153
memoriales; procurators; royal treasury
Council of Trent
302
and analogies between pre-Hispanic beliefs and Christianity
34, 311
and education of indigenous clergy
207n4
and evangelization of native peoples
8, 35, 58, 60
and sexual and familial practices
306
and translation
34, 66, 271–72
on catechesis
8
on confession
304
Covarrubias Orozco, Sebastián de
18, 277
Creed
258, 263, 269, 272, 290
Cruceños
43n121, 100, 148, 199
Cruz, Laureano de la
30, 37–38, 190, 283
Cuenca
50–51, 144
Cueva, Lucas de la
and finance of Maynas missions
150–51, 153
and native rebellion
287
arrival in Maynas
2, 44, 95
on conflicts between parcialidades and ethnicities
33n81, 128n137
on Spanish expeditions
39n105
participation in missionary entradas
110, 115
use of indigenous auxiliaries
109, 210
Cujía, Gaspar
2, 91, 95, 110, 210
Cumanagota language
269
cunhamenas
201
Cunivos
86, 117n111, 229, 254, 262
evangelization of
200, 230, 303
funerary practices of
315
punitive expeditions against
99
rebellion of
99, 121
shamans of
86, 285, 287
Curaray River
2, 37–38, 115, 309
curare, trade of
168
curupa
314
Cuzco
47n134, 80, 253, 311
demarcation commission for the Treaty of San Ildefonso
144n30, 166
demonic possession
73, 76n115
demonization
and affirmation of natives humanity
74, 78–79, 81, 90, 322
as cultural translation
56
decline of
89n171
discourse of
78n127
demonology
78
literature on
60, 61n29
desertion from missions
117, 122, 131, 133–34, 192, 199, 229, 287
as influenced by the devil
74
to the land of the Jívaros
109n71, 230
cimarrones; populational mobility
despacho
146, 167, 220
Deubler, Leonardo
220, 316
devil
and indigenous languages
240
assimilation of indigenous deities into
56–57, 58n10, 59, 64, 67–68, 70, 71n82
in Amazonia
62
in indigenous rituals
64, 75
in the New World
7, 56, 61
influence on flagellants
298–99
natives as slaves of the
61–62, 75, 79, 89, 304
natives’ beliefs about the
64–65, 71, 81
pact with the
73, 86, 87n161, 88, 89n171
physical presence of the
57, 63–64, 68, 70, 72–73, 88
pictorial representations of the
68
role in spreading illnesses
72n86
translation of the term
67, 267, 272
worship of the
56, 64–66
Dobrizhoffer, Martín
240
Dominicans
58–59, 199, 269–70
Durán, Diego
58, 78n127
Durango, Nicolás
159–60
Dutch
31, 189, 196, 205
Eder, Francisco Javier
130, 267, 276, 307–8
Ehende, Cristóbal (chief)
41
El Dorado
21, 46n132
in Spanish petitions
21–22, 47–49, 54, 100, 104
origins of
46n132, 47n134
recent scholarship on
21n39
memoriales; precious metals
Encabellados
36n94, 263–64, 268
in Holy Week celebrations
301
political organization of
37
rivalry between parcialidades of
129
social organization of
31n74
term for evil spirit
67
encomenderos
22n40, 38–39, 52n154
abuses of
39, 52n154, 231
defensive obligations of
52–53, 143, 150
political power of
51
Tucano language
encomiendas
colonists’ defense of
52
distribution of
21, 24, 43, 45
incorporated to royal patrimony
51, 53
justifications for
50, 51n153, 53n156
permanence of
53
requests for
22–23, 49
memoriales; military expeditions (Spanish); piezas de servicio
English
24, 89n171, 142
enmities
among native groups
31n74, 108, 111, 122–23, 128, 130, 132, 134–35, 319–20
and expansion of native networks
91
as obstacle to evangelization
31
inspired by the devil
85
Enríquez del Castillo, Alvaro
43, 48n136
epidemics
51, 71, 105–22, 123, 139, 214, 223, 300
Escobar y Mendoza, Francisco de
130, 252, 256, 292
Esperança, Manuel da
187, 190, 197
Eucharist
58, 61, 80, 271, 302, 311, 315
evangelization
and making native subjects
183, 205
challenges in Maynas
283, 319
Jesuit strategies for
20, 237, 261, 275, 292–93, 308, 312
accommodation; civil customs and religious rites; competitive sociability; conversion; hybrid Christianity; tolerance of indigenous customs
evil
63–64, 67, 71, 81, 267
exorcism
72–73, 76–77, 88, 286, 304
extreme unction, native beliefs about
302
Falcombeli, Francisco
120, 130, 250
fantastical images, memoriales use of
21, 54
fasting in indigenous societies
315
Fernández, Juan Patricio
155n86, 223, 297, 299
Ferrer, Rafael
26, 158
Ferrufino, Juan Bautista
155
Figueroa, Francisco de
151, 220, 260, 295
martyrdom of
76n110, 98n26, 158–60
on entradas
42
on indigenous understandings of God
33–34
on shamans
83
firearms
107n61, 148
fiscales de doctrina
206
ambiguous role of
228–29, 232
autonomy of
226, 230
doctrinal basis for
208
education of
222
prestige of
211
responsibilities of
206, 208, 210–11, 229, 290
social origins of
218
indigenous auxiliaries; indios ladinos
flagellants
80n134, 134, 292, 298–301
Fonseca, José Antunes da
187
Franciscans
25, 34, 53, 66, 74, 80n134, 99n30, 117, 222, 269
abandonment of missions
37
administration of pueblos following Jesuit expulsion
166
among the Guarani
284n19
and indigenous teachers
209
and resources for missions
167n126
and the Avijiras
37
and the Jívaros
38
and translation
271–73
apocalyptic vision of
319
jurisdictional disputes with Jesuits
126n132, 127, 199–200
missionary entradas of
126
on pre-Hispanic religiosity
79
on the Cunivos
315
Portuguese
182
relations with Portuguese ransoming troops
190
royal support for the
164
use of competitive sociability
308
visit to the Ucayali missions
230
Freire, Alexandre de Souza
196
French
31, 51, 202, 218
friendly natives, characterization of indigenous people as
13, 15, 21–22, 24, 26, 54
Fritz, Samuel
3, 61, 80–81, 81n136, 114n95, 126, 198, 200, 202, 274, 285, 295
and Spanish–Portuguese relations
184–87, 189–90, 192
catechism of
257–58, 263
map of the Amazon River
3, 160–61
on flagellants
81
on missionary entradas
114
petition to Spanish authorities
142
role in mission expansion
125, 180
trip to Pará
126, 141, 184–86
Fuentes, Francisco de
36n94
funerary practices
26, 213, 223, 231, 315
Furtado, Francisco Xavier de Mendonça
182, 191
Gayes
33n81, 109–10, 121, 160, 199
genital mutilation
314
gifts
133
importance of
288
in missionary entradas
108–9, 112–13, 115, 126, 165
iron tools as important
112, 115–16
lack of funds to purchase
116
Ginés de Sepúlveda, Juan
35, 93
God
indigenous understandings of
33, 34n86
translation of the term
67, 264, 266
gold. see precious metals
González Holguín, Diego
237
González, Joseph
51–53
Gospel
34, 62, 91–92, 94, 262
governors
Jesuit criticism of
143n24, 144
role in border defense
143
salary of
142–44, 165
Greece
13, 14n2, 17, 20, 35n91
Guaman Poma de Ayala, Felipe
68, 231
Guarani
68, 113n90, 213, 255, 266, 284n19
alliance with the Jesuits
148
ancient customs refashioned in Catholic context
227
as defenders of territorial limits
147, 178
beliefs about dead peoples bones
66n56
engravings
69–70n70
language learned by Jesuits
238, 271
militias
106n59
polygyny among
309–10
practice of fasting among
66n59
reception of the notion of hell
65–66n55
shamans
289
Guarani missions
and Portuguese bandeiras
101
as model for other Jesuit reductions
6, 117
economy of
141, 146
funding sources for
138
shamans in
289
use of images as evangelization tool in
275
witchcraft in
228
Guasaga River
107, 134
Guatavita, Lake
46n132
Guatemala
236, 242
Guayana
31
guilt
304
sin
indigenous conceptions of
276, 307
Gumilla, Joseph
3, 64, 71, 83, 84n150, 116, 223, 226–27, 243, 309–10
Gutiérrez, José
167, 204, 260
Guzmán y Salazar, Francisco de Rojas
126
Hail Mary
257, 272, 290, 313n154
hallucinogens
73, 84n150, 86, 267, 285, 314
healing (as conversion strategy)
285–86
plants; shamans
heaven, natives beliefs about
65, 274, 276, 303
afterlife
hell
natives beliefs about
65, 70, 274–75, 304
pictorial representations of
69, 275
translation of the term
264, 267, 273
Heriarte, Maurício de
25, 29, 30n68, 32
Herodotus
13
Herrera, Francisco
99, 120
Herrera y Tordesillas, Antonio de
46n132
Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo
243–44, 246
holidays
celebrations of
293, 299–300
integrated in native celebrations
295, 298, 313
Holy Spirit
240, 264, 269, 271
holy water
77, 88, 282, 286, 318n176
Holy Week
80n134, 293, 297–301, 318
houses, construction of
24n46, 294
huaca
59, 212, 229, 232
Huallaga River
47n134, 109, 121, 160, 180
hybrid Christianity
209, 284, 316
accommodation; conversion; evangelization
Ibanomas
189, 203
Icaguate language
245
Icaguates
117n112, 246n58, 288
idolatry
8, 222, 272, 312, 317
according to the Third Council of Lima
8
among natives in Amazonia
24, 26–27, 34, 36
and demonolatry
56
and distinction between civil customs and religious rites
280, 317, 320
confessionals on
306
José de Acosta on
35, 57, 59
translation of the term
267
civil customs and religious rites
images (as important evangelization tool)
68, 275, 292
Incas
21, 35n91, 58, 60, 263
indigenous auxiliaries
9, 50, 257, 320
as school teachers
209
distinctions between
217
ecclesiastical authorities distrust of
231
education of
219
in Mojos
218–19, 221
mitayos as
220
responsibilities of
219, 223, 231
scholarship on
207, 210n12
viracochas in Maynas as
219
fiscales de doctrina; indios ladinos
indigenous cabildos
1, 4, 257
composition of
210, 218
continuity of native parcialidades in
97, 228
duties of
210
indigenous clergy
207
indigenous cultural resistance
250, 291, 309
indigenous enslavement
182
by Portuguese settlers
101, 180, 187, 190–91
by Spanish settlers
21, 42–43, 47, 95, 101
caciques participation in
197
Iberian justifications for
50
indigenous participation in
192–93, 204
participation of Portuguese Carmelites in
196–97, 202
permanence of
21
Portuguese legislation on
181, 190
encomiendas; military expeditions (Spanish); piezas de servicio; punitive expeditions; ransoming troops; violence
indigenous labor force
47–48, 54, 191
allocation to colonists of
181
as pretext for conquest
49
remuneration of
146, 169
indigenous languages
and grammatical rules
254
classification of
243–44, 250
in Chiquitos
244
in Maynas
241, 244
in Mojos
244, 246, 256
indigenous militias
1, 4
formation of
106
in missionary entradas
102, 104, 106, 193
Jesuits’ use of
101
officers
107
role in border defense
148
role in native identities
97
role in social control
113
social composition of
106
missionary entradas
indigenous religiosity
34, 41, 66, 271, 320
Jesuit descriptions of
34–35
indigenous revolts
2, 38, 95, 225, 232
as influenced by the devil
74, 78
indigenous warfare
95–96, 128, 130, 135
importance in missionary entradas of
114, 132–33, 135–36
objectives of
95
missionary entradas
indios ladinos
208, 230, 260
ambiguous role of
231
and indios bozales
260
infanticide
37, 305
interethnic contacts
and cultural change
132, 283
interpreters
92, 98, 108, 115, 201, 251, 260
and administration of sacraments
252–53, 306, 322
role in missionary entradas of
33n81, 99n29, 109, 111–12, 115
Iquitos (native group)
33, 36n94, 52, 117n111, 131, 301
Iriarte, Martín
129, 241, 263, 313n154
iron tools
112, 113n90, 151
Itonamas
305–6
Iturbide, Luis de
143n23, 144, 150, 198, 288
Japan
20, 156
Jebero language
241, 244, 260
translation of terms to
271, 273, 276–78
vocabularies of
247, 257, 263
Jeberos
117n112
beliefs about the devil
68, 110
cimarrones
288
descriptions of anthropophagy among
33
enslavement of
42
evangelization of
147, 318
foundation of missions among
2, 50
letrados among
217
militia
104, 107
missionary entradas to
36n94, 44, 287
native festivals and Catholic celebrations among
295
participation in missionary entradas
107–8, 129
smitheries among
112
Jesuit properties
164
role in funding Maynas missions
160, 164, 166, 179
Jesuits
and language learning
236
and the problem of accommodation
320
and the use of violence in evangelization
92–94
non-Iberian
177
Portuguese
2, 182, 184–85, 192–94, 205
recruitment of
171
the four grades of
120n117
Jesus Christ
35n91, 59, 61, 77n119, 80n133, 81, 92, 149n58, 215, 280, 323
Jews
31, 79, 267
Jitipos
145, 254, 262, 295
Jívaros
105, 107
as forced laborers
50
descriptions of
38
entradas to
36n94, 39, 103n51, 104–5, 116, 129
gold in the land of
105n57, 167
native deserters in the land of
109n71, 230n111
political organization of
29
reduction of
39, 45
resistance of
103, 103–4n51
royal license for conquest of
24, 43
Juan, Jorge
171, 176
Juli
2, 237, 242
just war
92n4, 181, 190, 197
La Condamine, Charles Marie de
202
La Laguna, Santiago de
28, 124, 131, 185, 203, 225, 252, 263, 298
Lamas
6, 100, 124, 167, 170, 220
language learning
by Jesuits
236n14, 237–38, 240, 242, 261
difficulties in
239, 250
in Juli
237
in Maynas
241–42, 247, 250
language policy
68, 236, 238
and diffusion of lenguas generales
235
in Chiquitos
238, 255
in Maynas
238, 246, 256–57, 321
in Mojos
238, 246, 255
in Peru
237, 239–40
in Portuguese Amazonia
240
in Spanish Amazonia
241
of the Spanish crown
234–35, 236n11, 254
linguistic homogenization; vocabularies and grammars; translation
Las Casas, Bartolomé de
18, 35, 59, 283n15
Latin
17, 30–31n71, 217, 236, 261–62, 270–72, 277, 282
lengua general
237, 239, 254, 279
definition of
235–36
in Maynas
241, 256, 258, 260–61, 269, 321
in Mojos
255–56
in Orinoco missions
243
in universities
235
Lent
213, 300, 304, 318
letrados
217, 261
Lima
142, 151, 169, 171, 208, 216, 236
linguistic homogenization
6, 254
in Chiquitos
255
in Maynas
134, 256
in Mojos
255
Lisbon
198, 205
Logroño de los Caballeros
38, 103–5, 139
Loja
142n17, 143n21, 144, 151
Lopes, José
193
Loreto de Ticunas, Nuestra Señora de
117, 124, 131
Los Naranjos
105
Loyola, Ignatius of
61–62, 88, 285
Lucero, Juan Lorenzo
172
linguistic work of
241, 262
on Amazonian natives as barbarians
28–29
on an entrada to the Jívaros
103n51, 105
on conversion strategies
215
on epidemics
122, 214
on iron tools
112
on Jesuit jurisdiction over Amazonia
199
on Portuguese incursions
202
on shortage of missionaries
121
Macas
39, 47n134, 51–53
Madeira River
101, 182
magic
71, 88, 89n171, 229, 282
Magnin, Juan
13, 81, 84n150, 260, 280, 291
on anthropophagy
33
on indigenous understandings of God
33
on interpreters
252–53
on language learning
242, 250
on missionary entradas
113–14
on mitayos
220
on native beliefs about Christian concepts
63, 65, 72, 274, 302
on native beliefs about spells
129
on native customs
313
on polygyny
308, 310
Magnus, Albertus
14n6
mamelucos
155n86, 187, 194, 198, 201
Mamoré River
100, 256
Manaos
196
Manasí dialect
245, 255
Maparinas
75, 98n26, 117n111
Maranhão
25, 30, 82, 181–82, 185–86, 205
Marañón River
52n154, 128, 133, 144, 153, 204
as Portuguese possession
187
as the site of El Dorado
45
foundation of missions along
2, 95
indigenous peoples of
23–24, 36n94, 48
Jesuit jurisdiction over the
35
Spanish conquest of
23, 43, 49
Marbán, Pedro
28, 92, 149, 162, 315
Mojo grammar of
247–49, 255–56, 267
Marian congregations
212–13, 215
confraternities
Mármol, Melchor del
39–40
Maroni, Pablo
29n66, 44n124, 111, 198, 230, 301
on apparitions
72
on challenges of native languages
246
on gifts
113
on martyrdoms
159
on missionary entradas
113, 115
on natives receptivity to baptism
303
on preaching about hell
64
on shamans’ communication with the devil
66, 83
on the Omaguas
52n154
marriage
302, 308–10, 316
Martínez de la Ripalda, Juan
162, 189
Martínez Rubio, Juan
30, 177
martyrdom
and territorial possession
155, 159, 162, 178
as result of native cultural resistance
309
early modern European accounts of
76, 154
in Catholic culture
156, 158n90
Jesuit accounts of
75, 76n110, 121, 154–56, 158–60
petitions to the crown and accounts of
154–56, 160, 162, 173
Spanish military response to
98–99, 225
Mary (the mother of Jesus)
153, 207, 212, 216, 264, 272, 292
Mass
208, 284–85n19
indigenous auxiliaries role in
219–20, 223
natives observance of
290–91, 301, 313
Mativa, Geronimo
81, 180, 285
Mato Grosso
217, 228
Maxano, Thomás
159n94, 301
Maynas (native group)
23, 36n94, 117n111, 210
descriptions of
23–24, 33
participation in entradas
42, 107
revolt of
95, 199
royal license for conquest of
24, 43
Maynas missions
crown investments in
150
economy of
146, 164
exports of
139, 167–69, 171
proliferation of pueblos in
116, 121–22, 127, 134
role of music in
293
scholarship on
1
Mayorunas
108, 121, 133, 246n58, 257, 261–62
Mayr, Domingo
256
Mejía, Alfonsus
293
memoriales
21–22, 36, 38, 40, 46, 49
Jesuit-authored
160, 172–73
Council of the Indies; encomiendas; precious metals; procurators
Mercado, Pedro de
65, 84, 210, 268, 274, 307–8, 312
mestizos
61, 79, 106, 201, 207n4, 219, 283n15
military expeditions (Spanish)
22–23, 92, 95, 101n35
and missionary entradas
99
as slave raids
23, 42, 47, 102, 105, 319
direction of
107
multiethnic composition of
107
organization of
107
pretexts for
100
proposals for
45
termed as pacification
33n81, 42
encomiendas; indigenous enslavement; piezas de servicio
millenarianism
61, 79, 311
Miranda, Alonso de
41, 49n143, 74
missionaries
144
as arm of the Spanish empire
147
as healers
87, 285–86
circulation of goods and authority of
87
cost of sending
172
geographic origins of
177
loneliness of
250–51
natives perceptions of
285
number requested and received
173
number residing in the college and in the missions
175, 177, 179
personality
125
recruitment strategies
138
shortage of
120–21, 171, 174, 176–77, 229, 241
shamans
missionary entradas
6, 20, 91, 103, 127
and capture of indigenous peoples
104–5, 111–12, 115, 221
and indigenous wars
114, 132
and native knowledge
114
and punitive expeditions
98, 106, 135
Brazilian precedents of
92
challenges of
116–17
direction of
108
financing of
104
frequency in Amazonia of
131, 135
natives uses of
91, 96, 106, 108, 127–28, 132–36
organization of
101, 102, 113
outcomes of
104, 106, 110, 115, 131
purposes of
97, 115, 131
role in populating Maynas missions
96, 122–23, 135
role in social control of missions
113
social composition of
110
strategies for attracting natives to missions of
101, 106, 111–13, 125, 148
indigenous militias; indigenous warfare; military expeditions (Spanish)
missions
administrative structure of
97
and pueblos anexos (in Maynas)
230
emergence of new municipal identities in
233
Chiquitos missions; Guarani missions; Mojos missions
missions to infidels, Jesuit strategy of
238
mitayos
abolition of the institution
221n66
responsibilities of
220–21
Mojo language
6, 238, 245, 247, 255–56, 267, 279
Mojos missions
6, 310
administration of
218
confession in
306–7
confessionals produced in
305
funding sources for
138, 149, 151, 163
linguistic and cultural diversity of
6, 256
martyrdoms in
178
material conditions in
171n144, 221, 223
missionary entradas in
98, 132, 148
role of music in
293
Molina, Alonso de
236, 266, 272
Moraes, Belchior Mendes de
194, 196
Motilones
43–44, 47–48
Moyobamba
21n38, 24, 47, 100, 139, 167
Muratas
109, 129
music (European)
216, 261, 292
and native musicians
206, 213, 216, 218–19, 226, 229, 238, 261
role in evangelization of
293
nación, definition of
96, 134
Nahuatl
57n8, 78n127, 206, 235–36, 239, 242, 254, 266
Napeanos
117n112, 261, 295
Napo River
25, 26n52, 52, 95, 113, 124, 170, 195, 230, 263, 288, 301
as Spanish possession
166, 200
indigenous peoples of
26, 37, 52, 254
navigability of
44n124
Portuguese presence along
149–50, 181, 187
the Omaguas of
52n154
natural religion
35, 59
Nebrija, Antonio de
234–36, 279
Negro River
192, 195–96
as Spanish possession
200
Carmelite presence on the
183, 188–89
indigenous peoples of
189, 200
Portuguese presence on the
126, 162, 182, 195–96
New Kingdom of Granada
15, 138n4, 153, 155, 172, 179, 236, 242
missionary presence in
138, 174–75, 179
Niclutsch, Francisco
87n161, 97n23, 143n24, 310
Nieremberg, Juan Eusebio
69n70, 275
Nieto Polo, Tomás
165, 260
Nóbrega, Manuel da
92
Nucuray River
65, 110, 129
Oas
109
obrajes
51, 164
Oliveira, Ignacio Correia de
187, 198, 203
Olmos, Andrés de
57
Omaguas
36n94, 42, 117n112, 125, 133, 192, 195, 198, 200, 202, 246n58, 255
asking for Jesuit protection against the Portuguese
180, 202
beliefs about heaven
274
bilingualism among
260
descriptions of
25–26, 27, 30, 37, 40–41
descriptions of anthropophagy among
32
evangelization of
290, 313, 315
funerary practices of
316
learning the language of
242
migrations of
26n52
missionary entradas to the
26, 129
of the Napo River
52n154
participation in indigenous slave trade of
203–4
polygyny among
200
practice of indigenous slavery among
111
practices similar to baptism among
81
rebellion of
52n154
textile production of
27
Ordinances Concerning Discoveries (1573)
43n121
Orellana, Antonio de
156–57, 223, 246
Orellana, Francisco de
26, 47n134, 254
Orinoco River
71n82, 99n29, 116, 162, 226–27, 243
cattle raising in the valley of
145
devil among natives of
64, 71, 73, 76
missionary entradas along
20
Our Father
257, 272, 290
pagan
14, 240
Panoan language family
241, 245
Panos
131, 246n58, 314
Pará
25
Carmelites in
188
indigenous slaves in
182, 187
Jesuits in
183, 193
Paraguay
141n12, 148n57, 155, 284n19
indigenous peoples of
147
Jesuit precepts for mission governance in
224
request for more priests for
173
Paranapuras
107, 131
parcialidades
127, 211
and nación
96, 134
as a challenge to mission expansion
129–30
definition of
96, 134
Pastaza River
65, 87, 110
European presence along
39n105, 47
indigenous peoples of
33–34, 88, 109, 121, 295, 298
military entradas to
50
Paulistas
147, 155
Payaguás
107n61, 117n111, 129, 244, 246n58, 288
Pebas
107n61, 117n112, 203, 246n58, 250, 310, 312
and the curare trade
168
beliefs about hell of
274
enmities of
130
interethnic contacts of
132
linguistic diversity in the mission of
241, 272
participation in an uprising
232
participation in missionary entradas
128, 134
population
131
practices similar to baptism among
81
shamans
84
Peña Montenegro, Alonso de la
141, 252
peninsulares, privileges of
51
Peramás, José Manuel
214
Pérez de Ribas, Andrés
76, 94, 158, 242n45, 262
Philip II
137n1, 235, 254
Philip IV
181
Philip V
147, 236n11
piezas de servicio
22–23, 42, 100, 105
missionary entradas and sale of
99
encomiendas; indigenous enslavement; military expeditions (Spanish)
Pimentel, Vitoriano
189, 195, 197, 200–1
Pinche language
241, 244–45
Pinches
110, 117n111, 121, 133, 295, 306
Piñoco dialect
238, 245, 255, 279
pirates, indigenous peoples described as
44n124
Piratininga (São Paulo), Jesuits in
92
Piros
33, 99, 117n111, 160, 254, 262
Pizarro, Gonzalo
26, 47n134
plants
medicinal use of
285–86
ritual use of
66, 285
healing; shamans
poisoning
227–28, 286, 303
policía
19n28, 52n154, 115, 121, 135, 153, 261, 293
and encomienda
50
and native language
270
characteristics of
25, 54
definition of
17–19
describing natives as people with
41
describing natives as people without
28, 37, 93
indigenous interpretations of
230
native auxiliaries in the diffusion of
206
versus vivir alarabe
18
political community
descriptions of natives as
40
language of
254
reducir
Polo de Ondegardo, Juan
16, 58
polygyny
302, 312
missionaries efforts to eradicate
75, 223, 261, 308–9, 314n160
practice of
24n46, 200, 308–10
toleration of
309–10
Popayán
53n156, 82
population statistics (of the Maynas missions)
3, 124
populational mobility
122–23, 202–3, 205
desertion from missions
Potosí
149
precious metals
26, 46–48
as justification for reduction
38–39
as pretext for conquest
49
as pretext for enslaving native populations
45n130
gold
26, 36, 38, 44, 46n132, 47, 104, 116, 167
mining of
26, 104, 139
silver
36
El Dorado
private donations (role in funding Maynas missions)
137, 151, 166
royal treasury
processions
301
and native offerings
297
integrated in native celebrations
298
procurators
36, 38, 66, 104, 148n57, 150–51, 155, 165
role in securing mission resources
137, 138n4, 153–54, 178–79
role in staffing missions
172–74, 178
Protestants
31, 76, 154
punishment
and mission governance
98, 224
in Maynas
225
in Mojos
223
in native societies
41
in Paraguay
224
missionaries use of
94, 215, 224–25, 232
of confraternity members
215
of women
224–25
punitive expeditions
159n94
Jesuit participation in
98–99
purposes of
98–99
indigenous enslavement
Putumayo River
38, 99n30, 113, 308
Quechua language
2, 217, 242, 257, 263, 276
as lengua general
6, 111, 219, 238–39, 250, 255–58, 260, 269
Quijos
22, 26, 33n81, 39–40, 47, 49, 51–53, 166
quipus
58
Quiroga, Pedro de
231, 253
raids (indigenous)
44–45
as pretext for Iberian actions
48, 50, 51n153, 52
raids for captives. see indigenous enslavement; military expeditions (Spanish); ransoming troops
ransoming troops
180–81, 190, 205
abuses of
193
and enslavement of native peoples
99n30, 190–93
collaboration between Portuguese Carmelites and
201
comparision with war troops
181, 190
justifications for
194
legal status of
191
relations with Portuguese authorities
195
relations with Portuguese Carmelites
195–97, 202
relations with Portuguese Jesuits
192–94
relations with Spanish Jesuits
195
Spanish military responses to
198
indigenous enslavement
Real Patronato
137n1, 141, 153
royal treasury
Recio, Bernardo
294
Recopilación de Leyes de los Reinos de las Indias
137–38n1, 163n103, 212
reducir, definitions of the term
19, 254
Requena, Francisco
144n30, 166, 221n66, 296
revenge
31, 42, 129
spells
Richter, Enrique
104, 111–12, 131, 173, 229, 285, 287, 303
martyrdom of
99, 121, 159
Río de la Plata
16, 45, 173
Riofrío y Peralta, Diego de
165, 184
Riva Herrera, Martín de la
21n38, 39n105
Roamaina language
244
Roamainas
33, 39n105, 110, 133, 160, 261, 299
Rodríguez, Manuel
28, 66, 76, 98n26, 113n92, 151, 153, 155–56, 158, 301
Rojas, Alonso de
27n57
Rome
3, 13–14, 20, 35n91, 212
royal treasury
53n156, 144, 164, 177
and border defense
150
and funding of missions
127, 137, 137–38n1, 144n30, 172
and Spanish entradas
50
collection of quinto from Logroño
38
of Quito
163, 164n107
role in funding Chiquitos missions
149, 170
role in funding Maynas missions
7, 137, 140, 144, 151–52, 162–63, 165–66, 319
role in funding Mojos missions
149
subsidy
38, 139
synods
Ruiz de Montoya, Antonio
65–66n55, 148
Saavedra, Cristóbal de
24–25
sacraments
60, 302
baptism; confession; confirmation; extreme unction; marriage; Eucharist; satanic parodies
Sahagún, Bernardino de
57n8, 58n10, 272
salt
167, 171
Salve Regina
258, 272
San Ignacio de Pebas
120, 124, 130, 168, 232, 296
San Joaquín de Omaguas
27n58, 52n154, 124, 219, 225, 246, 257, 263, 286, 295, 299
San Pedro de Alcalá del Río Dorado
40, 41n113
Sánchez Labrador, José
285
Santa Cruz de la Sierra
100, 102, 199, 227–28, 238
Santa Cruz, Raimundo de
108
Santo Tomás, Domingo de
59, 239, 270
Santos, Tomás
109n70, 110, 115n103
sarsaparilla
6, 139, 160, 169, 191–92, 285
satanic parodies
56, 58, 60, 66, 80–82, 90, 311, 315
as preparation for Christianity
61, 79, 81
Schindler, Nicolás
203, 250
Semigayes
107, 115, 121
shamans
analogies between Jesuit missionaries and
82, 87–88, 284–89, 303, 317
as charlatans
35, 83–85, 287
collaboration with devil
56, 58, 58–59n16, 62, 66, 82, 86, 285, 287, 299
described as sorcerers or witches
58, 58–59n16, 62, 278
persistence of
83, 289
redistributive functions of
288
referred as mohán or moján
83, 287
relations between priests and
288, 322
role in opposing missionary presence
287, 299, 303
roles in indigenous societies
84, 87, 284
healing; plants; poisoning; spells; witchcraft
sin
63, 242, 253, 264, 276, 302, 304, 306
guilt
slaves, native. see captives in indigenous societies; indigenous enslavement; military expeditions (Spanish); ransoming troops
Sobrino, Gaspar
219, 232
Solimões (native group)
63, 187
Solimões River
29, 126, 182–84, 188, 193, 196–97, 200–1
Solórzano Pereira, Juan de
14, 17, 93, 253
Soto, Juan de
101n35
soul, translation of the term
268, 272
spells
28, 31
as cause of deaths
28, 37, 85, 87–88, 129, 287
as cause of diseases
84–85
poisoning; revenge; shamans
staff
301
as symbol of power
209–10, 217–18
staffs, indigenous auxiliaries; indigenous cabildos
storm conjuration
88n166, 286, 318
Streiger, Miguel
215
Suárez, Pedro
37, 158–60, 309
supay
59, 67, 271, 273
synods
137, 140, 153, 166
payment to Amazonian missionaries of
178
payment to Chiquitos missionaries of
138n3, 149, 163, 165
payment to Maynas missionaries of
150–52, 163
payment to Mojos missionaries of
162
payment to Paraguay missionaries of
165
problems with payment of
165–66
requests for payment of
148, 162–63
procurators; royal treasury
Tao dialect
238, 245, 255, 279
Tapia, Diego de
269
Teixeira, Pedro
25, 27n57, 29, 32, 181, 187
territorial disputes
between religious orders
126, 183, 186, 199–201
between the Spanish and the Portuguese
181, 183–84, 186, 189, 200
importance in drawing crown attention to Amazonia
138, 141, 149–50
territorial possession
and rhetoric of conquest
199, 204–5
ceremonies of
142, 186–87, 199
evangelization as proof of
30, 126, 183, 186, 199–200
Third Council of Lima
8, 58–59, 232, 257, 268
and accommodation
35, 80
catechism of
269
on catechesis
8
on translation
264, 278
Ticunas
107n61, 117, 125, 186, 274n180, 305n122
and the curare trade
168
bilingualism among
261
confessional in the language of
274, 305
interethnic contacts of
131–32
participation in missionary entradas
134
Tigre River
2, 95, 103, 109n70, 110
Titicaca, Lake
2, 237
tobacco
74, 113n90, 139, 141n12, 146, 168, 191, 268, 286, 313–14
tolerance of indigenous customs
112, 125, 280, 282, 284, 309, 311–13, 316–17, 320–21
accommodation; civil customs and religious rites
trade in mission products
167
native labor and
168–69
role in funding missions
153, 167–68
translation
239
and analogies
270, 276–77, 311
and neologisms
236, 270, 273
as a cultural phenomenon (scholarship on)
7, 9, 270
avoiding (of Church vocabulary)
34, 66, 264, 270–71
of Christian doctrine in Maynas
257
of Christian terms into indigenous languages
67–68, 272–73, 277, 321
language policy; vocabularies and grammars
tribute
collection in Chiquitos
149, 170
collection in Mojos
170
collection of
137, 148, 152
exemption of Maynas Indians from
162, 170
Tucano language
82, 84, 241, 244–45, 258, 263–65, 268
Tucumán
29n64, 238, 264
Tupi language
2, 201, 204, 241, 244–45, 254, 257, 261, 266, 314
Tupinambás
32, 75
Ucayali River
126n133, 214, 262
entradas to
98n26, 126, 131, 171n148, 200, 230
indigenous peoples of
44, 254
Ulloa, Antonio de
171, 176
urban layout
295
role in evangelization
294
Uriarte, Manuel de
27n58, 91, 142, 169, 261, 263, 305, 313–14
on casa de recogimiento
225
on flagellants
299
on hallucinogens
314
on indigenous auxiliaries
219, 222
on missionary entradas
92
on mitayos
220
on Omaguas as Christians
315
on poisoning
286n24
on the influence of the devil
75
on the loneliness of mission life
251
on tolerance of indigenous customs
313
on trade in mission products
167
use of healing
286
Vaca de Vega, Diego
2, 24, 42–43, 45, 50, 142
Vaca de Vega, Jerónimo
104, 106
Vaca de Vega, Mauricio
29, 103n51
vanilla
171n144, 285
export of
6, 139, 147, 167–69, 171
projects regarding exploration of
171
Veigl, Franz Xaver
117n111, 241n38
image of a Maynas pueblo
296–97
map of the Upper Amazon
117–20
on Catholic celebrations in Maynas
293
on conversion
322
on fiscales de doctrina
211, 222
on language learning
247
on missionary entradas
116, 131
on shamans
85, 89
on spells
317
on the devil’s physical presence
72
on the languages of Maynas
241
use of healing
285–86
Velasco, Juan de
98n26, 122, 168, 175, 309
Vidal, Gaspar
100, 104–5
Vieira, Antônio
240
violence
missionaries use of
20, 93–94, 104, 231
missionary entradas use of
102, 105, 115
Portuguese ransoming troops use of
191, 193
Spanish expeditions’ use of
42, 102
indigenous enslavement
viracocha
or indigenous auxiliary
320
or Spaniard
72, 110, 113, 225, 232
Viva, Francisco
104–5, 116, 171, 185–86
Vivas, Gaspar
111, 229, 261
vocabularies and grammars
59, 68, 244, 250, 262, 269–70, 278–79
and transliteration
246–47
Aymara language
2, 66
Jebero language
247, 271, 276–77
Lorenzo Hervás y Panduros works on
243
Mojo language
247
Nahuatl
236, 272
number produced in Maynas
262–63
Omagua language
255
Quechua
59, 237
trilingual
257
Tucano language
86, 263, 268
Yameo language
250
wax
302
collection of
169–70, 228
export of
139, 147, 167–68, 171, 221
Widman, Adan
73, 115, 128, 133, 225, 232, 272, 274, 312, 314
witchcraft
9, 58, 85, 88, 89n171, 129, 228, 312, 318n176
Ximénez, Bartolomé
163
Yahuas
33, 117n111, 132
Yameo language
242, 245, 250, 257, 261, 263
Yameos
107n61, 246n58, 286, 301
beliefs about the devil
62
bilingualism among
261
enslavement by the Portuguese
189, 198
evangelization of the
200
flagellants
81
foundation of pueblos among
128
funerary practices of
315
missionary entradas to
133
shamans among
285
the devil among
72n86
views of baptism
77, 303
Yaruquí
164
Yurimaguas
117n112, 180, 187, 190, 222, 246n58
Zarate, Andres de
on caciques’ authority
29
on catechisms
258
on exorcism
72, 77
on images as evangelization tool
275
on Maynas economy
146, 165, 171
on missionary entradas
127, 133
on native beliefs about the devil
71, 77
on native languages
240, 270
on Spanish expeditions
54
on spells
129n145
Zephyris, Francisco Javier
62, 87, 121, 158n90, 217, 221, 298, 307