Notation, Terminology and Abbreviations
Phonological segments are written without any special delimiters and their status as phonemes or allophones is often left open, in order to present as undistorted a picture as possible of these linguistic systems, where the amount of empirical data to date is quite limited. As an exception to this, in a few cases in the phonology sections of the grammar sketches, phonetic variants are explicitly marked using surrounding square brackets. Further, in the transcriptions, optionality (free variation) is indicated with ordinary parentheses, e.g., Sangla Kinnauri (s)kad ‘language’ can be pronounced kad or skad, and Kinnauri Pahari seb(-e) [all(-emp)] can occur with or without the -e [-emp] in the example where it appears. A special case is the notation “(-)” used with some grammatical items to indicate that their status as bound affixes (e.g., case endings), clitics or independent words (e.g., postpositions) is not clear (e.g., the (-)rǝŋ comitative marker in Kinnauri). The boundary symbol “+” is used in some cases instead of “-” to indicate a compound boundary, i.e. a boundary between two lexical units combined in one word.
The abbreviations and grammatical glosses used are those of the Leipzig Glossing Rules1 as far as possible. My own additions and modifications to these used in the examples and in running text are preceded by “*” in the table below. In running text, glosses (corresponding to the middle line in the interlinear examples) are surrounded by square brackets and free translations (corresponding to the last line in the interlinear examples) are written in single quotes. Parentheses are used in the interlinear glosses for clarifications and added information, such as inferred words or phrases or explanations of literal glosses.
Small caps are used in the glosses of grammatical features and values, including the standard abbreviations listed in the table below, while labels for part-of-speech, phrases, syntactic functions, etc., are written either with all caps (NP) or initial capital (Adj). Small caps are also used in Chapter 5 for the labels of the items in the lexical concept lists used in the comparative study reported there.
The notation “a ~ b” expresses that there is (free) variation between a and b, i.e., they are alternative ways of expressing the same thing.2 An expression on the form “a : b” (or sometimes “a/b”, especially in the case of affix allomorphy) says that there is some kind of relevant linguistic contrast—formal or semantic—between a and b, i.e., that they stand in some kind of paradigmatic opposition.
|
* |
Abbreviation |
Feature |
|---|---|---|
|
1 |
first person |
|
|
2 |
second person |
|
|
3 |
third person |
|
|
A |
agent-like argument of canonical transitive verb |
|
|
abl |
ablative |
|
|
Adj |
adjective |
|
|
Adv |
adverb(ial) |
|
|
agr |
subject agreement |
|
|
all |
allative |
|
|
* |
ana |
anaphoric |
|
* |
anim |
animate |
|
* |
asp |
aspect |
|
aux |
auxiliary |
|
|
* |
C |
consonant |
|
* |
chrt |
cohortative |
|
* |
CL |
clause |
|
clf |
classifier |
|
|
* |
cmp |
comparative |
|
* |
cnt |
count(able) |
|
* |
cntr |
contrastive specifier |
|
com |
comitative |
|
|
* |
conj |
conjunctive coordinator |
|
* |
cont |
contrast particle/marker (‘than’) |
|
cop |
copula |
|
|
* |
crl |
correlative |
|
dat |
dative |
|
|
def |
definite |
|
|
dem |
demonstrative |
|
|
* |
dim |
diminutive |
|
* |
dir |
direct knowledge |
|
* |
disj |
disjunctive coordinator |
|
dist |
distal |
|
|
* |
dsm |
discourse marker/particle |
|
du |
dual |
|
|
* |
dui |
dual inclusive |
|
* |
echo |
echo word |
|
* |
ego |
egophoric actor |
|
* |
emp |
emphasis |
|
* |
ena |
egophoric non-agent |
|
erg |
ergative |
|
|
excl |
exclusive |
|
|
* |
expl |
expletive |
|
f |
feminine |
|
|
* |
fact |
factual (non-direct) knowledge |
|
foc |
focus |
|
|
fut |
future |
|
|
* |
given |
given information |
|
* |
h |
honorific |
|
* |
hi |
high intentionality |
|
* |
hum |
human |
|
* |
idx |
index(ing) |
|
imp |
imperative |
|
|
* |
i.name |
proper name of individual (human, mythological, etc.) |
|
* |
inch |
inchoative |
|
incl |
inclusive |
|
|
inf |
infinitive (= nominalizer used as citation form) |
|
|
ins |
instrumental |
|
|
intr |
intransitive |
|
|
ipfv |
imperfective |
|
|
* |
lnk |
linking element |
|
loc |
locative |
|
|
m |
masculine |
|
|
* |
mdl |
middle |
|
* |
mnr |
manner |
|
* |
N, n |
noun |
|
n- |
non- (e.g. nnom non-nominative, npst nonpast) |
|
|
neg |
negation, negative |
|
|
* |
nh |
non-honorific |
|
* |
nlc |
connecting morph in numerals |
|
nmlz |
nominalizer/nominalization |
|
|
nom |
nominative |
|
|
* |
now |
(result of witnessed) change of state/situation |
|
* |
NP |
noun phrase |
|
* |
Num |
numeral |
|
* |
nvis |
direct non-visual knowledge |
|
* |
O, o |
object |
|
* |
P |
phrase |
|
pfv |
perfective |
|
|
pl, PL |
plural |
|
|
* |
ple |
plural exclusive |
|
* |
pli |
plural inclusive |
|
* |
p.name |
place name, geographical name |
|
poss |
possessive |
|
|
prog |
progressive |
|
|
proh |
prohibitive |
|
|
prox |
proximal/proximate |
|
|
prs |
present |
|
|
pst |
past |
|
|
ptcp |
participle |
|
|
q |
question marker |
|
|
quot |
quotative |
|
|
recp |
reciprocal |
|
|
refl |
reflexive |
|
|
rel |
relativizer/relative pronoun |
|
|
res |
resultative |
|
|
S |
single argument of canonical intransitive verb |
|
|
* |
SAP |
speech act participant (1st or 2nd person) |
|
sg, SG |
singular |
|
|
* |
snd |
sound-imitating |
|
* |
subo |
subordinator |
|
* |
sup |
superlative |
|
* |
tae |
tense/aspect/evidentiality |
|
* |
term |
terminative |
|
* |
tns |
tense |
|
* |
too |
‘too, also’ |
|
tr |
transitive |
|
|
* |
V, v |
verb |
|
* |
V |
vowel |
|
* |
vis |
direct visual knowledge; visible |
|
* |
vol |
volitional |